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Bjfl  M  p    <;    RARN 


Superintendent  of  iichools 
EAST  HARTFORD,  COPlkCTIClT 


Department  of  Superintendence 
THIRD  YEARBOOK 


RESEARCH  IN  CONSTRUCTING  THE  ELEMENTARY 
SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 


PUBLISHED  BY 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  SUPERINTENDENCE 

OF  THE  NATrONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

1 20 1  Sixteenth  Street  Northwest,  Washington,  D.  C. 

February,  1925 


THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  SUPERINTENDENCE 

OFFICERS,  1924-25 

President,  William  McAndrew,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Chicago,  111. 
First  Vice-President,  Payson  Smith,  State  Commissioner  of  Education,  Boston,  Mass. 
Second  Vice-President,  John  J.  Maddox,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Executive   Secretary,   Sherwood   D.    Shankland,   1201    Sixteenth    Street   Northwest, 

Washington,   D.   C. 
Executive  Committee:  Randall  J.   Condon,  Superintendent  of   Schools,   Cincinnati, 
Ohio. 
Frank  W.  Ballou,   Superintendent  of  Schools,   Washington, 

D.   C. 
Frank  D.  Boynton,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
M.  G.  Clark,   Superintendent  of  Schools,   Sioux  City,  Iowa. 

THE  1924-25  COMMISSION  ON  THE  CURRICULUM 

Edwin  C.  Broome,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Chairman. 

John  L.  Alger,  President,  Rhode   Island   College  of  Education,   Providence,   R.   I. 

Frank  W.  Ballou,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Mrs.  Susan  M.  Dorsey,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

John  M.  Foote,  Rural    School   Supervisor,   State   Department  of  Education,   Baton 

Rouge,   La. 
Charles  H.  Judd,  Director,  School  of  Education,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 
Harold    O.    Rugg,    Lincoln    School,    Teachers    College,    Columbia   University,    New 

York   City. 
Zenos  E.  Scott,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Springfield,  Mass. 
Frank  E.   Spaulding,  Dean,   School   of  Education,  Yale   University,   New   Haven, 

Conn. 
Paul  C.  Stetson,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Dayton,  Ohio. 
A.  L.  Threlkeld,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Denver,  Colo. 
H.  B.  Wilson,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Berkeley,  Calif. 
John  W.  Withers,  Dean,  New  York  University,  New  York  City. 


FOREWORD 

"To  bring  together  the  elements  for  the  construction  of  a  suitable  cur- 
riculum for  the  boys  and  girls  of  American  public  schools,"  was  the  purpose 
of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  in  its  appointment  of  the  Commis- 
sion on  the  Curriculum.  The  1924  Yearbook  of  the  Department  laid  the 
basis  for  this  program  through  its  statement  of  general  educational  aims  and 
objectives,  through  its  survey  of  current  curriculum  practice,  and  through 
its  proposed  machinery  for  cooperative  effort  in  curriculum  revision  in  a 
local  community. 

When  the  Commission  on  the  Curriculum  met  in  July,  1924,  the  ques- 
tion was,  What  can  a  national  commission  do  that  will  be  of  greatest  help 
to  superintendents  of  schools  who  are  faced  with  the  problem  of  curriculum 
revision?  The  commission  decided  that  the  most  needed  service  was  the 
collection  and  analysis  of  outstanding  research  studies  in  each  of  the  sub- 
jects of  the  elementary  curriculum.  It  was  known  that  many  such  studies 
of  high  value  had  been  made  which  should  be  considered  in  the  revision  of 
curricula ;  but  they  were,  for  the  most  part,  inaccessible  because  of  their 
technical  form,  or  because  of  their  publication  in  isolated  monographs  or 
magazines,  or  because  of  their  fragmentary  distribution.  A  review  of 
selected  scientific  studies  in  one  volume,  together  with  an  analysis  and 
summary  of  them  in  terms  easily  understandable,  was  the  service  for  sci- 
entific curriculum  construction  which  the  Commission  on  the  Curriculum 
decided  to  render. 

The  work  of  carrying  out  the  plan  was  delegated  to  the  Division  of 
Research  of  the  National  Education  Association.  The  time  allotted  was 
less  than  six  months.  The  studies  to  be  reviewed  were  of  a  technical 
nature  and  in  fairness  to  their  authors  could  only  be  reviewed  by  specialists 
thoroughly  familiar  with  each  subject.  It  would  have  been  impossible  for 
any  one  person  to  do  the  work  in  the  limited  time.  The  leadership  of  the 
Nation  in  the  curriculum  field  was  sought  out.  Twelve  subcommittees 
were  appointed,  one  for  each  elementary  school  subject.  A  search  for 
material  was  made  in  universities,  colleges,  and  school  systems  throughout 
the  country.  As  far  as  possible  all  published  and  unpublished  elementary 
curriculum  studies  were  collected. 

Because  of  the  time  limit  and  the  fact  that  the  reports  of  all  subcom- 
mittees had  to  be  included  in  one  volume,  the  studies  reviewed  are  selected 
and  not  comprehensive.  In  some  fields  much  more  research  has  been 
done  than  in  others.  This  fact  explains  why  certain  subjects  are  given 
greater  space  in  the  Yearbook.  Parts  I  and  II  were  reduced  to  a  minimum 
in  order  to  give  as  much  space  as  possible  to  the  review  of  research  studies. 

The  Department  of  Superintendence  is  most  appreciative  and  deeply 
indebted    for   the   nation-wide   cooperation   which   it   has   received.      The 


Division  of  Research  has  bent  every  effort  to  make  the  Yearbook  possible. 
Seventy-five  curriculum  specialists  have  given  gratis  of  their  time,  training, 
and  experience  in  analyzing  the  studies  collected.  Through  their  unselfish 
efforts  this  great  piece  of  cooperative  research  was  made  possible.  Their 
most  important  reward  will  be  in  the  testing  out  and  application  of  their 
findings,  to  the  end  that  the  boys  and  girls  of  our  public  schools  may  have 
a  curriculum  built  on  scientific  principles  and  American  ideals. 


CONTENTS 


PART  ONE— NEED  OF  REVISION 

Chapter  Page 

I.     A  cooperative  Plan  for  the  Revision  of  the  American  Elementary  School 

Curriculum    9 


PART  TWO— VARIATIONS  IN  CURRICULA 

II.     Possible   Variations   in  .Curricula  to   Meet   Community    and    Individual 

Needs    17 


PART   THREE— CURRICULA  PROBLEMS   AND   THEIR 
SCIENTIFIC    SOLUTION 

III.  Arithmetic     35 

IV.  Spelling 110 

V.     Reading 152 

VI.     Handwriting    205 

VII.     The   Social    Studies 217 

VIII.     Language    and    Grammar 278 

IX.     Elementary    Science 297 

X.     Health   and  Physical  Education 303 

XI.     Home    Economics 32Q 

XII.     Industrial  Arts 329 

XIII.  Art   Education : 337 

XIV.  Music    354 

PART  FOUR— ADDENDA 

Report  of  Secretary 367 

Members  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence 372 

Index  to  Authors  of  Research  Studies .  422 


[5] 


PART  I 

A  Cooperative  Plan  for  the  Revision 

of  the 

^American  Elementary  School  Curriculum 


[7] 


PART  I.— A   COOPERATIVE   PLAN   FOR   THE   REVISION 

OF  THE  AMERICAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

CURRICULUM 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  curriculum  has  a  large  share  in  determin- 
ing the  Nation's  present  and  future  progress.  Through  its  public 
schools,  America  is  endeavoring  to  pass  on  to  its  youth  all  that  has 
been  found  best  in  the  past:  the  knowledge,  habits,  skills,  attitudes,  and 
ideals  most  useful  to  individual  and  national  life  at  present ;  and  in  addi- 
tion, it  attempts  to  supply  youth  with  the  necessary  tools,  understanding, 
foresight,  and  incentive  for  the  future  advancement  of  its  people.  Knowl- 
edge and  skill,  disseminated  among  the  masses  of  the  people,  according  to 
a  leading  economist,  constitute  a  nation's  greatest  wealth.  The  habits  of 
a  people  determine  the  degree  of  faith  that  other  nations  accord  it;  and 
the  idealism  of  its  citizens  is  a  nation's  salvation.  Since  the  public  school 
is  designed  to  disseminate  knowledge,  develop  right  habits,  and  implant 
proper  ideals,  it  may  rightly  be  termed  the  life  insurance  of  civilization. 

The  public  school  curriculum  determines  what  boys  and  girls  are  taught 
in  school.  With  the  exception  of  the  personality  of  the  teacher,  no  other 
educational  factor  equals  it  in  importance.  The  elementary  school  cur- 
riculum lays  the  foundation  of  every  child's  education ;  and  it  constitutes 
all  the  school  training  of  about  three  fifths  of  America's  children. 

Why  the  Elementary  School  Curriculum  Needs  Revision 

The  elementary  school  curriculum  is  a  more  vital  factor  in  the  develop- 
ment of  national  life  today  than  ever  before.  In  pioneer  days,  ordinary 
living  at  home  and  in  the  community,  directed  by  insistent  family  needs, 
provided  a  fairly  adequate  preparation  for  life.  Then  the  task  of  the 
American  public  school  was  mainly  to  supplement  the  life  of  the  home, 
church,  and  community  by  adding  the  Three  R's.  As  time  went  on,  the 
public  school  was  called  upon  to  supply  more  and  more  formal  education. 
Many  new  courses  were  added  to  the  traditional  subjects.  Unfortunately, 
there  was  often  lack  of  synthesis  of  the  whole,  since  additions  and  modi- 
fications were  made  without  plan  or  system ;  and  the  result  in  many  in- 
stances is  "the  amorphous  product  of  generations  of  tinkering."  Unless 
school  practice  is  abreast  or  ahead  of  the  time,  it  cannot  be  a  directive 
power.  There  has  been  too  much  of  a  tendency  for  convention  and  tradi- 
tion to  determine  curricula,  rather  than  practical,  present-day  life  demands. 
An  active  principle  which  is  now  coming  to  be  recognized  in  the  selection 
of  content  is  that  of  utility  in  a  broad  sense.  Will  the  inclusion  of  a  par- 
ticular topic  or  subject  increase  the  effectiveness  of  the  individual?  Will 
it  influence  life  for  good?  Will  it  build  character?  Today  we  are  using 
a  pragmatic  philosophy. 

[9] 


10  Department  of  Superintendence 


Pruning  out  the  dead  wood,  selecting  minimum  essentials  from  total 
possible  content,  adding  supplementary  material — tinkering  with  the  cur- 
riculum— will  no  longer  answer  the  need.  A  complete  revision  is  de- 
manded by  both  educators  and  laymen.  Both  groups  demand  a  new  cur- 
riculum, expressive  of  the  changed  conditions  of  modern  civilization  and 
reshaped  in  the  light  of  our  better  understanding  of  child  life  and  the 
learning  processes. 

The  Need  for  Curriculum  Revision — What  the  Layman  Sees 

The  layman  too  often  views  the  public  school  curriculum  from  these 
two  angles:  (1)  growing  costs,  and  (2)  lack  of  thoroughness  in  essen- 
tials. The  first  viewpoint  is  sane,  providing  that  it  is  positive  and  not 
negative.  When  larger  numbers  of  children  are  educated  and  given  the 
better  and  richer  education  which  civilization  demands,  the  cost  is  certain 
to  increase — it  cannot  be  otherwise — and  the  cost  must  be  met.  More 
careful  selection  of  curriculum  materials  should  be  made,  but  it  is  doubt- 
ful that  it  will  or  should  result  in  reduced  expenditures. 

The  second  viewpoint  from  which  the  layman  considers  the  need  for 
curriculum  revision  is  a  supposed  lack  of  thoroughness  in  essentials.  There 
may  be  some  justification  for  this  attitude.  The  only  reliable  evidence, 
however,  such  as  the  Springfield  tests  and  the  Boston  tests  of  1845,  has 
demonstrated  that  most  public  schools  of  today  are  securing  better  results 
in  the  so-called  "fundamentals"  with  a  heterogeneous  mass  of  children 
than  the  schools  of  half  a  century  ago  secured  with  selected  groups.  The 
argument  for  "cutting  out  fads  and  frills"  is  sometimes  only  a  plea  for 
the  old-time,  traditional  school  program,  which  would  be  an  anachronism 
in  present-day  life.  The  American  school  must  expand  until  it  offers 
whatever  is  necessary  to  develop  intelligent  American  citizenship. 

The  Need  for  Curriculum  Revision — What  the  Educator  Sees 

The  educator  also  sees  the  need  of  curriculum  revision  from  two  angles : 
(1)  the  expansion  of  the  field  of  knowledge,  and  the  need  for  a  dis- 
criminating selection  of  what  is  best  suited  to  meet  present  social  demands  ; 
and  (2)  provision  for  character  building,  including  the  development  of 
broad  interests,  liberal  views,  and  the  establishment  of  right  social  and 
ethical  attitudes.  The  limited  time  that  the  average  child  spends  in  school 
in  contrast  to  the  vast  amount  of  knowledge  which  one  might  acquire,  the 
complexity  of  modern  life  with,  its  varied  demands,  and  the  necessity  of 
developing  individual  talents  are  conditions  which  lead  educators  not  only 
to  restudy  and  analyze  the  aims  and  objectives  of  education,  but  also  to 
demand  a  complete  revision  of  the  curriculum  to  express  the  new  concep- 
tions of  education.  The  educator  is  seeking  as  the  major  products  of  his 
enterprise  strong  character  and  right  conduct,  built  not  on  precept,  but 
fashioned  through  years  of  right  thinking  during  lesson  hours  and  prop- 


The  Third  Yearbook  11 


erly  controlled  behavior  in  school  activities.  Teachers  not  only  want  their 
pupils  to  meet  the  standard  tests  in  academic  achievement  but,  what  is 
more  important,  to  meet  successfully  the  tests  of  life,  even  to  the  point  of 
temptation.  For  this  reason,  although  teachers  may  rightly  expect  that 
character  development  will  be  an  important  by-product  of  all  good  instruc- 
tion, they  have  definitely  in  mind  the  moral  qualities  which  they  wish  to 
develop  in  their  pupils,  such  as:  honesty,  industry,  self-control,  courtesy, 
unselfishness,  service,  appreciation  of  beauty,  openmindedness,  cooperation, 
responsibility,  sympathy,  desire  for  improvement,  adaptability,  courage, 
initiative,  thoroughness,  self-judgment,  thrift,  faith  in  mankind,  and  rever- 
ence. Every  true  teacher  hopes  to  develop  these  qualities  through  life  situ- 
ations as  they  arise. 

When  the  educator  fully  comprehends  that  the  objectives  which  the 
school  must  serve  today  are  health,  training  for  a  vocation,  citizenship, 
worthy  home  membership,  the  profitable  use  of  leisure,  and  ethical  char- 
acter, he  keenly  feels  the  need  of  a  thorough  revision  of  the  present  public 
school  curriculum. 

These  viewpoints  of  the  layman  and  the  educator  relative  to  the  need 
for  curriculum  revision  can  and  must  be  harmonized  into  a  working  agree- 
ment. 

Present  Activity  in  Elementary  School  Curriculum  Revision 

The  aim  of  the  modern  educator  includes  the  aim  of  the  layman,  thor- 
oughness in  essentials,  and  goes  far  beyond  it.  The  teacher  strives  to  have 
his  pupils  spell  more  correctly  the  words  in  common  use,  use  the  arith- 
metical processes  necessary  in  modern  life  with  more  speed  and  accuracy, 
and  read  more  and  with  greater  rapidity  and  comprehension.  In  addition, 
the  teacher  would  have  his  pupils  appreciate  the  rights  of  others,  and 
respect  the  law;  in  other  words,  he  would  have  him  establish  a  proper 
relationship  between  himself  and  society. 

The  public-spirited  layman  cherishes  these  same  objectives  for  the  public 
school.  He,  too,  would  have  the  curriculum  revised  so  that  the  above 
objectives  may  be  attained.  The  result  is  that  curriculum  revision  is  in 
progress  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Several  of  the  national  societies  and 
foundations,  as  well  as  university  and  state  committees,  are  engaged  in 
studying  the  problem  of  the  elementary  school  curriculum.  Among  these 
are  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  the  American  Asso- 
ciation of  University  Women,  The  Commonwealth  Foundation,  The 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  the  California  Cur- 
riculum Committee,  and  Teachers  College  of  Columbia  University. 

Many  state,  county,  and  city  courses  of  study  have  been  rebuilt  recently, 
or  are  in  the  process  of  revision.  Representative  examples  of  large  city 
school  systems  where  courses  of  study  have  been  revised  recently  are: 
Berkeley,  California;  Los  Angeles,  California;  Denver,  Colorado;  Balti- 
more,   Maryland;    Detroit,    Michigan;    Cincinnati,    Ohio;   and   Trenton, 


12  Department  of  Superintendence 

New  Jersey.  In  response  to  a  request  for  recent  elementary  courses  of 
study,  200  representative  cities,  counties,  and  states  replied  that  they  had 
published  courses  of  study  since  1920.  This  is  indicative  of  the  vast 
amount  of  activity  in  curriculum  revision  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

Should  Curriculum  Revision  be  Done  Independently  or  by 
Cooperation? 

Some  of  the  work  in  curriculum  revision  is  the  result  of  months  of  care- 
ful study  and  the  pooling  of  leadership  in  the  field  of  each  subject.  In 
some  cities,  however,  the  work  has  been  done  hastily  and  unscientifically; 
in  every  city  there  has  been  much  duplication  of  effort.  When  each  com- 
munity attempts  to  solve  all  its  curriculum  problems  in  isolation,  the  results 
are  likely  to  be  unsatisfactory  and  expensive.  When  scores  of  cities  work 
independently,  there  is  an  unfortunate  waste  of  time  and  effort  in  the  du- 
plication of  bibliographies,  in  the  independent  collection  of  data  through 
repeated  questionnaires  and  other  forms  of  inquiry,  and  in  the  formulation 
of  major  principles.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  by  the  process  of  independent 
action,  only  those  school  systems  which  can  afford  to  expend  thousands  of 
dollars  on  curriculum  revision  can  make  independently  a  comprehensive 
and  satisfactory  study  of  the  problem.  Curriculum  making  is  becoming  a 
specialized,  technical  task,  which  requires :  ( 1 )  the  study  of  social  needs, 
including  those  peculiar  to  a  local  community,  (2)  analyses  of  the  abilities 
and  interests  of  growing  children,  (3)  experimental  study  of  the  learning 
process,  and  (4)  an  understanding  of  the  local  school  system,  the  temper 
and  capacity  of  its  teachers  and  administrators;  in  other  words,  what  can 
be  expected  of  them  in  helping  in  the  development  and  putting  into  effect 
of  a  new  course  of  study  at  a  given  time.  One  curriculum  specialist  has 
wisely  said:  "To  make  a  radical  selection  and  reorganization  of  the  best  in 
a  civilization  is  not  something  that  can  be  lightly  undertaken  or  easily 
accomplished.  Conferences  and  the  pronouncements  of  those  in  official 
positions  are  quite  inadequate.  Two  methods  are  needed  in  curriculum 
making:  (1)  the  subjective  method  of  expert  teaching  opinion,  and  (2)  the 
objective  method  of  expert  analysis  of  social  and  psychological  needs." 
Both  processes  should  work  together. 

Contribution  of  Research  to  Curriculum  Revision 

During  the  past  ten  years,  methods  of  determining  what  is  useful  and 
what  is  not  have  been  devised  in  part,  and  they  are  still  in  process  of 
development.     Some  important,  results  have  already  been  obtained. 

Part  III,  Curricular  Problems  and  Their  Scientific  Solution,  is  the  work 
of  sixty-nine  curriculum  specialists  and  subject  specialists.  It  pools  the 
most  important  research  studies  available  and  presents  bibliographies  that 
have  already  been  tested  out  and  found  helpful  by  a  number  of  local  com- 
munities, and  suggests  problems  which  local  committees  have  faced,  but 
which  require  further  research  for  their  solution. 


The  Third  Yearbook  13 


A  National  Committee  Should  Present  Raw  Material  Rather  Than 
a  National  Curriculum  for  General  Acceptance 

A  strictly  uniform  American  curriculum  for  the  elementary  schools  is 
hardly  possible,  because  of  the  great  variations  in  social,  industrial,  and 
economic  conditions.  Furthermore,  it  may  not  be  desirable,  because  of 
our  democratic  ideal  of  recognizing  local  needs  and  conditions  and  of  con- 
sidering individual  differences  of  children.  There  are  three  elements  in 
every  course  of  study :  ( 1 )  the  general  core  that  meets  nation-wide  re- 
quirements; (2)  the  part  that  has  to  do  with  the  local  community,  which 
may  even  vary  for  different  communities  in  the  same  city;  and  (3)  adjust- 
ments for  individual  children  and  varying  groups  of  pupils. 

In  its  Second  Yearbook,  the  Department  of  Superintendence  set  up  the 
machinery  for  devising,  revising,  and  supervising  a  curriculum  in  an  indi- 
vidual city.  This  machinery  was  based  on  the  idea  of  arousing  the  interest 
and  securing  the  cooperation  of  the  local  staff,  and,  at  the  same  time,  of 
assembling  ideas  from  the  outside.  The  Commission  on  the  Curriculum 
has  deemed  it  advisable  to  apply  the  same  method  to  the  work  it  has  in 
hand.  In  Part  II  of  this  Yearbook,  various  ideas  as  to  possible  variations 
in  the  curriculum  to  meet  community  and  individual  needs  are  presented ; 
and  accompanying  each  statement,  general  principles  to  guide  local  course 
of  study  committees  in  the  adaptation  of  a  curriculum  to  their  particular 
community  and  to  special  groups  of  pupils  are  suggested. 

A  Central  Agency  Could  Render  Invaluable  Service  as  a  Clearing- 
house for  Curriculum  Research 

The  research  studies  here  reviewed  are  illustrative  of  the  kind  of  work 
which  is  essential  to  scientific  curriculum  revision.  More  of  these  are 
needed.  The  fact  that  practice  should  keep  pace  with  research  also  calls 
for  the  testing  of  the  findings  presented  in  Part  III.  In  many  instances 
research  at  the  present  time  is  ahead  of  practice. 

The  Commission  on  the  Curriculum  presents  this  Yearbook  as  the  first 
comprehensive  effort  to  develop  a  cooperative  plan  for  curriculum  revision. 
The  commission  believes  that  there  should  be  a  central  agency,  continuing 
from  year  to  }^ear,  which  would  act  as  a  clearing-house  for  school  systems 
which  desire  to  cooperate  in  the  work  of  curriculum  revision.  In  other 
words,  provision  should  be  made  for  the  exchanging  of  bibliographies,  for 
rendering  available  research  studies  as  soon  as  they  are  completed,  and  for 
the  interchanging  of  the  findings  of  local  communities,  as  classroom 
teachers  test  out  certain  content  and  procedures.  Just  as  scientifically 
trained  workers  in  our  laboratories  furnish  us  with  the  bulk  of  scientific 
literature,  so  in  the  future  more  and  more  of  our  educational  contributions 
should  come  from  teachers,  administrators,  and  research  workers  trained 
Scientifically  to  observe  children  and  analyze  the  needs  of  society. 


14  Department  of  Superintendence 

It  is  the  nature  of  education  to  be  ever  progressing.  Continuous,  con- 
structive, scientific  study  must  be  carried  on,  if  the  public  school  curriculum 
is  to  keep  pace  with  social  demands  and  to  become  a  contributory  element 
to  more  intelligent  and  abundant  living. 

The  Commission  on  the  Curriculum  proposes  that  for  the  school  year 
1925-1926  as  many  school  systems,  as  will,  shall  agree  to  cooperate  in 
testing  the  findings  of  the  research  studies  reported  in  this  Yearbook,  that 
new  studies  be  undertaken,  and  that  the  results  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
the  schools  of  the  country  through  the  Department  of  Superintendence  as  a 
central  agency. 


PART  II 

Possible  Variations  in  Curricula  to  Meet 
Community  and  Individual  Differences 


[15] 


CHAPTER  II 

PART    II.  POSSIBLE    VARIATIONS    IN    CURRICULA    TO 
MEET  COMMUNITY  AND  INDIVIDUAL  NEEDS1 

MOST  of  the  present  elementary  school  curricula  are  based  upon 
the  theory  that  the  course  given  in  the  first  six  grades  covers 
the  so-called  tool  subjects  of  learning;  that  these  subjects  are 
fundamental  to  the  education  of  all  children  and  should  consequently  be 
given  approximately  in  the  same  degree  to  all  normal  children ;  that  dif- 
ferences in  aptitudes  and  life  plans  should  be  recognized  at  about  the  age 
of  twelve ;  and  that  elective  work  should  begin  in  the  junior  high  school 
and  should  continue  in  increasing  degree  through  high  school,  college,  and 
university. 

Although  this  means  that  all  children,  except  atypicals,  shall  take  the 
same  subjects  during  the  first  six  grades  of  the  elementary  school,  it  does 
not  mean  that  the  content  of  each  subject  shall  be  the  same  for  all  chil- 
dren, or  that  the  method  of  approach  to  a  particular  subject  or  topic  or 
the  time  allotment  will  be  the  same.  For,  notwithstanding  in  each  subject 
of  the  elementary  school  curriculum  there  is  a  general  core  which  is  uni- 
versal and  belongs  to  the  nation,  there  is  additional  material  which  must 
be  adapted  to  community  and  individual  needs. 

The  General  Core  of  the  Elementary  School  Curriculum  Belongs 

to  the  Nation 

For  the  drill  subjects,  Part  III  would  seem  to  indicate  that  research 
will  have  soon  determined  what  the  general  core  of  the  elementary  school 
curriculum  should  be — that  is,  the  irreducible  minimum  for  all  normal 
children  in  various  years  of  work  the  country  over. 

Charles  M.  Reinoehl,  in  his  Analytic  Survey  of  State  Courses  of  Study 
for  Rural  Elementary  Schools,2  lists  topics  which  are  common  to  nearly 
all  present  state  courses  of  study.  In  his  opinion,  these  topics,  with  some 
modifications,  include  much  information  of  which  every  American  has  need. 
He  shows  that  there  are  social  and  economic  problems  national  in  scope. 
There  are  problems  peculiar  to  a  state,  but  typical  of  problems  in  other 


1  This  section  is  a  summary  of  statements  of  general  principles  for  the  differentiation  of 
curricula  obtained  for  this  Yearbook  from  those  who  have  had  practical  experience  in  the 
adaptation  of  education  to  the  needs  of  individual  children.  Among  those  consulted  were: 
Velda  Bamesberger,  director  of  research,  Okmulgee,  Okla. ;  Orville  G.  Brim,  professor  of 
education,  Ohio  State  University;  Kenyon  L,.  Butterfield,  president,  Michigan  Agricultural 
College;  M.  G.  Clark,  superintendent  of  schools,  Sioux  City,  Iowa;  H.  M.  Corning,  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  Trinidad,  Colo.;  Virgil  K.  Dickson,  director  of  research  and  guidance, 
Berkeley  and  Oakland  public  schools,  Calif.;  John  M.  Foote,  rural  school  supervisor,  State 
Department  of  Education,  Baton  Rouge,  L,a. ;  Armand  J.  Gerson,  associate  superintendent  of 
schools,  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  S.  Monroe  Graves,  superintendent  of  schools,  Wellesley,  Mass.; 
W.  J.  Osburn,  director  of  educational  measurements,  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction, 
.Madison,   Wis.;  and   Carleton  W.   Washburne,   superintendent  of  schools,   Winnetka,    111. 

2  Reinoehl,  Charles  M.  Analytic  survey  of  state  courses  of  study  for  rural  elementary 
schools.     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin,   1922,  No.  42.      116  pp. 

[17] 


18  Department  of  Superintendence 


states.  There  are  problems  truly  representative  and  suggestive  in  char- 
acter, which  with  proper  adaptation  are  fully  as  valuable  as  those  of  wider 
application.  There  is  also  a  considerable  body  of  subject-matter  requir- 
ing drill,  of  which  every  normal  American  child  has  need.  Reinoehl's 
study  is  intended  to  indicate  the  content  of  the  core  of  the  rural  elementary 
school  curriculum.  The  studies  reviewed  in  Part  III  are  applicable  to 
communities  of  every  sort.  However,  even  if  research  should  determine 
what  the  minimum  essentials  in  curricular  content  should  be,  every  course 
of  study  committee  is  still  faced  with  the  problem  of  additional  adaptations 
for  its  particular  school  system. 

Two  Guiding  Principles  for  Curricular  Adaptation 

What  are  the  general  principles  for  differentiation  which  should  guide 
course  of  study  committees?  Two  guiding  principles  invariably  present 
themselves. 

The  first  principle  has  to  do  with  education  s  material,  the  individual 
child,  for  whom  educational  activities  are  being  planned.  The  second 
principle  has  to  do  with  the  child's  environment.  Nature  and  nurture  are 
important  factors  to  be  taken  into  consideration  when  planning  a  cur- 
riculum. 

Differentiation  of  Curricula  to  Fit  Individual  Needs 

The  fact  that  pupils  differ  in  ability  to  master  the  work  offered  in  the 
ordinary  curriculum  in  any  subject  is  well  known  to  any  one  familiar  with 
the  teaching  of  children.  Hence  in  fairness  to  the  rights  of  each  child,  it 
is  riot  only  impractical  but  impossible  to  teach  all  children  in  the  same  man- 
ner or  to  give  them  the  same  content. 

Ability  grouping  and  the  curriculum  problem — One  superintendent  who 
has  made  a  special  study  of  the  adaptation  of  curricula  to  individual  chil- 
dren in  his  school  system  states  that  about  six  or  eight  children  in  every 
ten  can  work  with  satisfactory  profit  with  the  same  educational  projects. 
Two  of  every  ten  children  can  usually  achieve  more  satisfactory  results  if 
given  an  opportunity  with  projects  more  advanced  than  that  of  the  so-called 
"average  six"  of  each  ten.  There  are  also  frequently  two  of  each  ten  who 
cannot,  or  at  least  do  not  experience'  the  same  or  equivalent  success  as  do 
the  others  in  the  group.  The  proportions  may  vary,  but  the  differences 
remain. 

Curriculum  making,  therefore,  has  specifically  to  do  with  the  regular 
grade. work  of  children  of  average  ability.  It  also  has  to  do  with  ungraded 
classes  of  children  who  are  below  the  average  group  of  the  class  in  actual 
results  secured  as  indicated  by  the  grades  obtained  by  each  in  school.  In 
addition  there  is  the  rapid  promotion  class,  or  the  class  capable  of  a  wide 
scope  of  comprehensive  offerings,  but  with  the  possibility  of  early  promo- 
tion from  grade  to  grade  held  in  abeyance.     In  larger  communities  admin- 


The  Third  Yearbook  19 


istrative  action  is  imperative  in  dealing  with  the  problem  of  the  physically 
handicapped,  as  well  as  of  children  with  emotional  instability.  These 
pupils  may  rank  well  in  intellectual  performance  but,  because  of  physical 
disabilities  or  emotional  instability,  they  cannot  profit  from  the  standard 
curriculum  unless  many  adjustments  are  made.  Similarly,  special  courses 
must  be  arranged  for  the  predelinquent. 

Nu?nber  of  ability  groups — The  size  of  the  school  usually  determines 
the  number  of  ability  groups  that  it  is  administratively  possible  to  organize. 
Even  when  there  are  as  many  as  five  or  six  ability  groups,  there  will  be 
considerable  variation  between  individual  members  in  any  one  group.  The 
larger  the  number  of  groups,  the  smaller  should  be  the  variation  in  ability 
between  individual  students. 

What  are  the  general  principles  that  every  course  of  study  committee 
attempting  differentiation  of  material  should  recognize?  This  question  is 
one  which  deserves  further  study.  In  the  absence  of  any  better  evidence, 
these  principles  are  tentatively  proposed  for  discussion. 

Major  principles  of  curricular  differentiation  for  ability  groups: 

1.  Methods  of  teaching  and  standards  of  attainment  differ  for  groups  of 
different  levels  of  ability,  but  there  are  real  possibilities  for  achievement  in 
any  class  in  the  public  school.  If  possible,  teachers  should  find  at  least  one 
socially  useful  thing  at  which  even  the  very  limited  x  pupil  can  succeed, 
train  him  in  this,  and  let  him  experience  honest  success. 

2.  Minimum  essentials  must  be  clearly  stated  for  all,  but  the  funda- 
mentals set  forth  for  the  lowest  group  must  be  included  as  a  part  of  the 
material  for  the  highest  groups.  It  is  important  in  a  democracy  that  cer- 
tain information  shall  be  the  common  heritage  of  all.  In  so  far  as  they 
are  able  to  acquire  it,  all  children  should  have  the  best  of  the  social  heritage 
of  the  race. 

3.  The  aims,  objectives,  and  outcomes  for  all  subjects  should  be  defi- 
nitely set  forth  for  the  different  ability  groups.  For  the  most  part,  there 
should  be  a  common  background  for  these  aims.  The  methods  and  em- 
phasis are  necessarily  different,  as  are  the  immediate  objectives  and  out- 
comes, but  the  same  ultimate  aim  of  education  should  guide  all  teaching. 
The  same  philosophy  of  education  is  back  of  whatever  differentiation  is 
made. 

4.  Definite  standards  of  attainment  must  be  indicated  for  all  levels. 
Much  study  is  needed  to  determine  the  amount  and  quality  of  work  which 
we  rightly  can  expect  from  pupils  of  different  levels  of  ability. 

5.  The  dull  pupil  should  have  extensive  opportunity  for  drill.  Contrary 
to  general  belief,  the  slow  thinker  is  not  necessarily  the  accurate  thinker. 
Nor  does  the  child  who  learns  slowly  necessarily  have  a  more  retentive 
memory  than  the  bright  child. 


x  The    term    "limited"    is    used    to    designate    those    pupils    who    do    not    seem    to    have    the 
ability  to  do  the  work  of  the  standard  elementary  school  curriculum. 


20  Department  of  Superintendence 

6.  Limited  pupils  usually  differ  from  superior  pupils  in  their  lack  of 
ability  to  project  themselves  into  new  situations.  The  superior  child  with 
his  quick  imagination  and  ready  powers  of  generalization  does  ,this  very 
easily.  On  the  other  hand,  the  limited  pupil  usually  cannot  reason  out 
general  principles  or  methods  of  attack  but  has  to  learn  largely  by  imita- 
tion and  successive  experiences. 

To  illustrate,  according  to  W.  J.  Osburn,  a  dull  child  who  has  learned 
8  from  13  will  probably  be  confused  by  the  48  from  53  which  occurs  in 
the  exercise  534  divided  by  6.  To  a  gifted  child  this  presents  little  diffi- 
culty. Dull  pupils  must  have  direct  teaching  on  all  of  the  important  ele- 
ments of  instruction,  whereas  gifted  pupils  will  probably  master  the  ma- 
terial after  one  tenth  of  it  has  been  taught.  There  are  more  than  1200 
combinations  in  arithmetic  which  everyone  must  know  in  order  to  carry 
on  ordinary  computation  with  integers ;  yet  we  know  gifted  pupils  can 
attain  a  reasonable  mastery  of  this  material  by  the  presentation  of  180 
combinations;  that  is,  the  45  principal  combinations  in  each  of  the  four 
processes.    This  is  not  true  of  the  limited  pupil. 

7.  The  content  of  the  course  of  study  for  the  slow  group  should  stand 
the  test  of  practicability.  A  large  majority  of  slow  pupils  leave  school 
early,  not  because  of  economic  necessity,  but  because  the  traditional  cur- 
riculum does  not  meet  their  needs  and  interests.  In  order  to  meet  their 
needs,  the  work  must  be  of  such  a  character  that  it  will  be  especially  ap- 
plicable to  their  every-day  life  needs.  Local  course  of  study  committees 
must  be  guided  by  what  they  know  almost  certainly  lies  ahead  of  certain 
groups  of  students. 

8.  The  content  of  the  course  of  study  for  the  gifted  group  must  be  en- 
riched, not  necessarily  by  more  difficult  or  more  extensive  material  of  the 
same  type,  but  by  a  wider  and  more  varied  choice.  Certain  additional 
material  may  also  be  presented,  as  the  beginning  of  foreign  language  study, 
and  other  work  which  will  provide  for  initiative,  organization,  and  devel- 
opment of  the  many-sided  interests  of  the  superior  child,  for  which  there 
is  little  time  in  the  average  class. 

9.  The  course  of  study  should  make  provisions  for  the  rate  of  progress 
which  may  be  expected  in  the  various  ability  groups.  The  gifted  child 
should  probably  be  allowed  to  complete  the  elementary  course  in  six  years 
or  less;  for  in  addition  to  enrichment  of  courses,  there  is  sometimes  advan- 
tage in  acceleration  in  the  elementary  grades  when  much  of  the  work  is  in 
drill  subjects.  The  normal  group  should  finish  the  six  grades  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  in  six  years ;  and  the  under-average  should  be  expected 
to  make  normal  progress  as  far  as  possible,  within  their  own  group.  In 
each  grade  the  atypical  group  should  be  expected  to  acquire  academic 
knowledge  only  in  so  far  as  their  capacities  permit,  without  excessive 
expenditure  of  time. 

10.  Suggestions  as  to  methods  and  procedure  best  adapted  to  the  dif- 
ferent levels  should  be  included  in  the  course  of  study.     Critical  investiga- 


The  Third  Yearbook  21 


tions  should  be  made  of  our  present  methods  and  their  relative  effectiveness 
in  reaching  pupils  of  varying  ability,  social  background,  and  environment. 

11.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  keynote  in  the  education  of  a  child 
of  limited  mental  ability  is  the  establishment  of  specific  habits. 

12.  The  differentiated  subject-matter  for  different  groups  should  be 
elastic  in  content,  so  that  it  can  be  modified  to  meet  individual  needs  as 
well  as  group  needs.  For  example,  children  from  foreign-speaking  homes 
may  have  the  same  mental  ability  as  other  children  in  their  group,  but  they 
have  a  different  social  background,  which  the  teacher  must  consider  in  her 
approach  to  the  subject-matter  which  she  wants  her  pupils  to  acquire. 

Individual  Instruction  and  the  Curriculum  Problem 

The  viewpoint  is  pretty  largely  accepted  that  the  needs  of  individual 
children  can  be  far  better  met  when  children  are  classified  on  an  ability 
basis  determined  by  such  factors  as  seeming  innate  mental  capacity,  teacher's 
estimate  of  ability,  previous  accomplishment,  industry,  health,  and  social 
maturity,  than  they  can  in  a  heterogeneous  class.  The  larger  the  number 
of  groups,  the  more  nearly  homogeneous  can  each  group  be  made.  In 
every  instance,  however,  there  will  still  be  considerable  variation  between 
individuals  in  any  one  group.  Hence,  some  argue  that  individual  instruc- 
tion is  the  only  plan  whereby  the  curriculum  can  really  be  made  to  fit  all 
children. 

The  Winnetka  Plan  of  Meeting  Individual  Differences 

Carleton  W.  Washburne,  superintendent  of  schools  of  Winnetka,  Illi- 
nois, discusses  this  point  as  follows: 

Children  differ  as  individuals,  not  as  artificially  formed  groups.  The 
children  of  high  intelligence  quotient  will  usually  do  better  work  than 
children  of  low  intelligence  quotient ;  children  who  are  good  in  one  subject 
are  more  likely  than  not  to  be  good  in  other  subjects;  but  the  exceptions 
to  these  rules  are  numerous  in  every  class  or  school  and  the  variations 
within  each  group  of  ability  are  far  wider  than  the  variations  between  the 
central  tendencies  of  any  two  ability  groups. 

Where  children  are  allowed  to  advance  individually  at  their  own  natural 
rates,  as  in  Winnetka,  for  example,  it  has  been  found  that  twenty-four  per 
cent  of  the  children  who  are  advanced  in  reading  are  only  average  or  actu- 
ally retarded  in  arithmetic  and  that  sixteen  per  cent  of  the  children  who 
are  advanced  in  reading  are  average  or  retarded  in  language.  The  same 
sort  of  thing  is  true  of  the  children  who  are  advanced  in  arithmetic  or  in 
language,  although  the  percentages  of  the  children  average  or  retarded  in 
the  other  subjects  is  somewhat  lower  in  these  cases. 

Similarly,  twenty-five  per  cent  of  children  of  high  intelligence  quotient, 
123  to  166,  tend  to  progress  in  school  at  an  average  rate  or  a  little  below 
average,  while  forty-nine  per  cent  of  children  of  low  intelligence  quotient, 
60  to  100,  tend  to  progress  at  an  average  rate  or  a  rate  above  average. 


22  Department  of  Superintendence 


If  children  are  divided  into  three  ability  groups  as  the  result  of  an  intel* 
ligence  test,  the  high  group  containing  the  quarter  with  the  highest  intel- 
ligence quotients,  the  low  group  containing  the  quarter  with  the  lowest 
intelligence  quotients,  and  the  middle  group  containing  the  half  of  the 
children  between  the  two  extremes,  it  is  found  in  Winnetka,  Illinois,  that 
the  difference  in  median  progress  of  the  three  groups  amounts  to  only 
about  two  months'  work  per  year;  whereas  the  range  from  the  poorest 
child  to  the  best  in  any  one  of  the  groups  is  from  eight  to  ten  times  as 
great.  The  median  child  of  the  gifted  or  high  group  saves  only  about  a 
month  a  year,  while  the  median  child  of  the  low  groups  loses  only  about 
two  weeks  a  year.  Yet  the  slowest  child  in  the  gifted  group  loses  two 
weeks  a  year,  while  the  fastest  one  gains  seven  and  one  half  months — that 
is,  does  almost  two  years'  work  in  a  year.  The  range  between  the  slowest 
and  fastest  children  in  the  middle  group  and  low  group  is  even  greater 
than  that  in  the  gifted  group.  The  slowest  child  in  the  low  group,  for 
example,  does  only  a  little  over  one  third  of  a  grade's  work  in  a  year,  while 
the  fastest  child  in  the  low  group  does  the  work  of  a  grade  and  one  half. 
Consequently,  the  organization  of  the  curriculum  to  fit  children  should  be 
an  organization  that  permits  each  child  to  spend  the  amount  of  time  he 
needs  to  master  each  phase  of  that  curriculum. 

If  the  curriculum  is  to  be  fitted  to  the  individual  children  rather  than 
to  ability  groups,  the  following  general  principles  may  be  laid  down: 

1.  The  knowledge  and  skills  which  every  child  must  master  shall  be 
clearly  specified.  The  knowledge  and  skills  should  be  those  which  will  be 
used  by  every  child  in  his  life.  They  should  be  determined  by  scientific 
investigations  of  social  needs,  not  by  tradition  or  committee  judgment. 
They  will  be  the  common  essentials — those  facts  and  skills  which  are 
essential  to  all  of  us  in  common. 

2.  Opportunities  for  the  mastery  of  these  common  essentials  should  be 
given  to  every  child.  This  inevitably  means  differing  amounts  of  time  for 
differing  children.  But  it  also  means  that  all  the  children  get  the  habit 
of  mastery  and  that  all  the  children  master  those  things  which  are  essential 
for  all. 

3.  Provision  shall  be  made  for  the  valuable  and  educative  use  of  the 
varying  amounts  of  surplus  time  of  the  more  rapid  workers.  Too  often 
plus  assignments  are  given  to  such  children  in  an  effort  to  occupy  their 
time.  Such  assignments  are  frequently  mere  padding.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  the  time  a  child  saves  in  one  subject  should  be  spent  in  educational 
work  on  that  same  subject.  It  is  often  wiser  to  allow  him  to  progress  as 
rapidly  as  his  ability  will  permit  until  he  has  a  large  enough  unit  of  saved 
time  to  enable  him  to  undertake  some  worthwhile  project  in  line  with  his 
interests  or  needs. 


The  Third  Yearbook  23 


Time  and  Content — Two  Factors  in  Differentation  to  Meet 
Individual  Needs 

The  methods  of  meeting  individual  needs  in  children  through  more 
homogeneous  grouping  and  through  individual  instruction  accept  as  the 
bases  of  adjustment  the  modification  of  time  that  children  of  different 
ability  require  to  complete  the  course  of  study  together  with  modification 
in  content.  Many  would  agree  that  both  the  factors  of  time  and  content 
should  be  modified.  Limited  pupils,  even  when  given  more  time,  do  not 
always  grasp  the  same  subject-matter  as  do  gifted  children.  In  curriculum 
construction,  we  are  faced  with  the  fact  that  all  individuals  cannot  ulti- 
mately learn  the  same  things. 

Differentation  of  Curricula  to  Fit  Community  Needs 

The  discussion  thus  far  has  dealt  with  education's  material — the  indi- 
vidual child.  The  second  general  principle  of  curriculum  differentiation 
has  to  do  with  the  child's  environment.  In  rural  districts  the  objectives 
of  elementary  education  are  not  different  from  those  in  the  city,  but  the 
means  of  reaching  them  and  materials  available  differ  from  those  in  large 
centers  of  population.  Some  communities  are  cosmopolitan  in  their  makeup. 
They  contain  within  their  limits  all  sorts  and  types  of  school  environ- 
ments and  the  superintendent  soon  finds  that  a  curriculum  which  would 
fit  one  district  in  his  city  will  not  completely  fit  another  district.  The 
ultimate  purpose  of  elementary  education  is  the  same  everywhere,  but  the 
content  and  method  through  which  it  is  achieved  varies. 

Major  principles  for  community  curriculum  differentiation — 1.  The 
materials  of  instruction  must  be  approached  in  terms  of  the  child's  interests 
and  experience.  The  experiences  may  be  pre-school  or  contemporary  with 
his  school  life.  Since  the  environmental  conditions  surrounding  pupils 
must  be  made  the  basis  of  approach  to  larger  experiences  to  be  developed 
through  the  curriculum,  local  course  of  study  committees,  the  elementary 
school  principal,  and  the  individual  teacher  must  be  responsible  for  the 
approach  to  subject-matter.  This  approach  will  be  a  means  to  an  end, 
not  an  end  in  itself.  To  illustrate,  agriculture  and  farm  life  experience 
may  be  used  as  the  starting  point  of  elementary  rural  education ;  they  need 
not,  and  oftentimes  should  not,  be  the  ultimate  goal. 

2.  Sheer  economy  in  learning  requires  that  the  educational  resources 
of  local  life  be  used.  For  example,  museums  and  art  galleries  are  sources 
of  art  lessons  for  the  city  child.  Autumn  coloring  of  woods,  sunsets,  and 
mountains  may  be  the  rural  art  teacher's  approach.  The  elementary  sci- 
ence teacher  in  the  city  could  profitably  have  his  pupils  study  gas  meters; 
rural  children  would  probably  find  the  Babcock  milk  tester  of  more  direct 
interest.  The  important  educational  resources  of  the  community  not  pre- 
sented in  the  curriculum  must  be  organized  for  instructional  purposes  so 


24  Department  of  Superintendence 

as  to  contribute  to  the  education  of  the  child.  Here  again  local  course  of 
study  committees,  the  elementary  school  principal,  and  the  individual 
teacher  must  be  responsible  for  the  educational  use  of  materials  of  a  local 
nature  not  found  in  the  general  curriculum. 

3.  The  details,  sequence,  and  emphasis  of  subject-matter  must  frequently 
vary  with  community  needs.  To  illustrate,  the  manual  training  teacher 
may  discover  that  pupils  in  the  slum  sections  of  a  city  will  be  interested  in 
learning  to  make  household  repairs.  The  child  from  a  wealthy  home 
would  probably  have  no  opportunity  to  use  this  knowledge  if  he  acquired 
it.  He  would  be  interested,  however,  in  learning  to  make  certain  toys 
which  money  cannot  buy.  In  the  end,  both  children  will  have  learned  the 
same  fundamental  principles  of  manual  training  and  the  use  of  the  same 
tools.  The  mere  going  through  a  process  after  it  has  been  learned  and 
ceases  to  have  educational  value  should  always  be  guarded  against. 

4.  The  course  of  study  should  not  be  based  on  traditions  of  the  past  or 
the  customs  of  a  community,  although  both  of  these  should  be  taken  into 
consideration  in  order  that  they  may  be  evaluated.  We  need  constantly 
to  challenge  our  educational  program  if  this  program  is  to  keep  abreast  of 
the  progress  made  in  social  and  economic  organization. 

5.  A  survey  should  be  made  of  every  community  before  planning  its 
course  of  study  to  determine  in  so  far  as  possible:  (a)  Physical  boundaries 
and  nature  of  the  community;  (b)  economic  interests  ,and  relations  of 
these  interests  to  social  and  spiritual  values;  and  (c)  social  assets  and 
liabilities  of  the  community,  including  such  items  as  communication,  trans- 
portation, means  of  play  and  recreation,  intellectual  and  spiritual  leader- 
ship. 

6.  Curricula  for  both  urban  and  rural  communities  should  be  developed 
with  specific  reference  to  the  "lacks"  or  "needs"  of  urban  or  rural  life  in 
general  and  to  each  community  in  particular. 

7.  It  is  of  vital  importance  that  the  community  know,  through  parent- 
teachers'  associations,  school  officials,  etc.,  the  reasons  underlying  the  or- 
ganization of  the  course  of  study  and  its  relation  to  the  community.  Out 
of  a  free  and  frank  discussion  of  this  phase  of  the  problem  will  come  the 
best  suggestions  as  to:  (a)  The  use  of  a  community  as  source  material  for 
the  elementary  schools;  and  (b)  the  ways  in  which  the  elementary  schools 
may  better  serve  the  community. 

The  public  school  must  seek  constantly  to  interpret  itself  to  the  adult 
community.  Unless  it  does  this,  its  efforts  are  bound  to  be  hampered.  The 
adult  public,  not  school  officials,  is  the  court  of  final  authority.  Hence  the 
public  must  come  into  possession  of  the  evidence. 

8.  Local  school  systems  within  states  should  be  given  a  certain  amount  of 
freedom  to  test  new  educational  theories. 

Progress  in  education,  like  progress  in  social  and  industrial  development, 
comes  largely  through  the  ability  of  individual  units  to  experiment,  dif- 
ferentiate, and  in  various  ways  modify  both  the  method  and ,  the  material 
of  their  curricula.     The  contributions  of  Rochester,  Gary,  Winnetka,  and 


The  Third  Yearbook  25 


countless  other  schools  have  come  through  their  opportunity  to  differentiate 
more  or  less  established  curricula. 

9.  The  outstanding  character  of  a  school  doing  a  valuable  piece  of  indi- 
vidual differentiation  becomes  a  challenge  first  to  schools  in  its  immediate 
neighborhood  and  finally  throughout  the  county,  the  state,  and  the  nation. 
The  purpose,  living  within  a  community,  must  find  its  initiative  or  motive 
within  itself,  not  from  without.  A  system  superimposed  may  become  an 
attitude,  but  never  assumes  sufficient  importance  to  be  character.  External 
conformity  may  not  mean  inner  acceptance. 

The  Final  Test  of  Differentiation 

To  summarize,  although  there  is  a  general  core  of  subject-matter  which 
should  prevail  throughout  the  nation  in  all  courses  of  study  for  the  first 
six  grades,  each  local  course  of  study  committee  and  individual  teacher 
must  be  responsible  for  the  approach  to  the  subject-matter,  for  the  use  and 
adaptation  of  the  materials  of  the  curriculum  for  community  needs,  for 
organization  for  instructional  purposes  of  the  educational  resources  of  the 
community  not  presented  in  the  curriculum,  and  for  introducing  material 
which  will  meet  the  needs  peculiar  to  a  given  community. 

When  these  differentiations  are  wisely  planned  and  carried  out,  com- 
munity interest  and  appreciation  result  from  the  service  which  the  school 
renders  the  community.  In  turn  the  public  gives  better  support,  both 
financial  and  moral,  to  the  work  of  the  public  school,  so  that  the  school  is 
enabled  to  render  still  larger  service ;  in  other  words,  the  initiative  of  the 
individual  community  is  aroused. 

To  achieve  this,  we  must  have  in  addition  to  differentiation  of  curricula 
to  meet  the  larger  community  needs,  a  flexible  curriculum  in  the  hands  of 
an  administrative  and  teaching  force  sensitive  to  the  interests  and  needs 
of  individual  children ;  for,  after  all,  the  problem  of  differentiation  of 
courses  of  study  is  one  of  constant  adaptation  of  education  to  the  indi- 
vidual. 


N 


PART  III 
Curricular  Problems  and  Their  Scientific  Solution 


[27] 


SUBCOMMITTEES  OF  THE  COMMISSION  ON  THE  CURRICULUM 

Arithmetic 

Guy  M.  Wilson  (Chairman).  Professor  of  Education,  School  of  Education,  Boston 
University,    Boston,    Mass. 

John  R.  Clark,  Editor  and  Business  Manager,  The  Mathematics  Teacher,  National 
Council  of  Teachers  of  Mathematics,  425  W.  123rd  St.,  New  York  City. 

F.  B.  Knight,  State  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City,  Iowa. 

Garry  Cleveland  Myers,  Cleveland  School  of  Education,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

W.  J.  Osburn,  Supervisor  of  Educational  Measurements,  State  Department  of  Edu- 
cation,  Madison,   Wis. 

John  C.  Stone,  Montclair  State  Normal  School,  Upper  Montclair,  N.  J. 

Clifford  Woody,  Director,  Bureau  of  Educational  Reference  and  Research,  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

Art  Education 

Leon  L.  Winslow  (Chairman)  Director  of  Art,  Department  of  Education,  Balti- 
more, Md. 

C.  Valentine  Kirby,  Director  of  Art,  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  Harris- 
burg,  Pa. 

Walter  H.  Klar,  Associate  Professor  of  Normal  Art,  Carnegie  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology,   Pittsburgh,    Pa. 

Ethelwyn  Miller,  Teacher  Training  Department,  John  Herron  Art  School,  Indian- 
apolis,  Ind. 

C.  Edward  Newell,  Supervisor  of  Art  and  Hand  Work,  Department  of  Public 
Schools,    Springfield,    Mass. 

Wiliam  H.  Varnum,  Associate  Professor  of  Applied  Arts,  University  of  Wisconsin, 
Madison,    Wis. 

Jane  Betsy  Welling,  Director  of  Art  Education,  Toledo,  Ohio. 

Elementary  Science 

Eliot  R.  Downing  (Chairman)  Associate  Professor  of  Natural  Science,  School  of 
Education,   University  of   Chicago,    Chicago,   111. 

Charles  W.  Finley,  Lincoln  School,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New 
York   City. 

George  W.  Hunter,  Knox  College,   Galesburg,  111. 

Edwin  E.  Slosson,  Director  of  Science  Service,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Walter  G.  Whitman,  Editor  and  Manager,  General  Science  Quarterly,  State  Nor- 
mal School,   Salem,  Mass. 

Health  and  Physical   Education 

Thomas  D.  Wood  (Chairman)  Professor  of  Physical  Education,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia    University,   New   York    City. 

A.  L.  Beaghler,  Director  of  Health  Education,  Denver  Public  Schools,  Denver,  Colo. 

Walter  W.  Davis,  Seattle  Public  Schools,  Seattle,  Wash. 

William  H.  Geer,  Director  of  Physical  Education,  Harvard  University,  Cam- 
bridge,   Mass. 

Frederick  W.  Maroney,  M.D.,  Department  of  Health  Instruction,  Atlantic  City,  N.  J. 

R.  C.  McLain,  Assistant  Supervisor  of  Health  Education,  Detroit  Public  Schools, 
Detroit,    Mich.  i 

[28] 


Home  Economics 

Henrietta  W.   Calvin    (Chairman)    Director,   Division   of  Home   Economics,   Board 

of  Public    Education,    Philadelphia,    Pa. 
Ellen  M.  Bartlett,  Supervisor  of  Home  Economics,  Department  of  Education,   San 

Francisco,    Calif. 
Emma  Conley,  Supervisor  of  Homemaking  Education,   University   of  the   State   of 

New  York,  State  Department  of  Education,  Albany,  N.  Y. 
Ula  M.  Dow,  School  of  Household  Economics,  Simmons  College,  Boston,  Mass. 
Wilhelmina  Spohr,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 
Mabel  B.  Trilling,  School  of  Education,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

Industrial  Arts 

F.  G.  Bonser  (Chairman)  Professor  of  Education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University,   New   York   City. 

R.  J.  Leonard,  Director,  School  of  Education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity,   New    York    City. 

Ella  M.  Nevell,  Supervisor  of  Industrial  Arts,  Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

Clara  P.  Reynolds,  Director,  Fine  and  Industrial  Arts,  Seattle  Public  Schools, 
Seattle,    Wash. 

W.  E.  Roberts,  Supervisor  of  Manual  Arts,  Board  of  Education,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Language  and  Composition 

W.  W.  Charters   (Chairman)   University  of  Pittsburgh,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
James  F.  Hosic,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 
J.  W.  Searson,  Professor  of  English,  University  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln,  Nebr. 

Music 

Jacob  Kwalwasser  (Chairman),  Head  of  the  Department  of  Public  School  Music, 
State  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City,  Iowa. 

C.  E.  Seashore,  Dean,  The  Graduate  College,  State  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City, 
Iowa. 

Peter  W.  Dykema,  Director,  School  of  Music  Education,  Teachers  College,  Colum- 
bia  University,   New    York   City. 

Will  Earhart,  Supervisor  of  Music,  City  Public  Schools,   Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Max  Schoen,  Department  of  Education  and  Psychology,  Carnegie  Institute  of 
Technology,    Pittsburgh,    Pa. 

Penmanship 

Frank  N.  Freeman    (Chairman)    School  of  Education,   University  of  Chicago,  Chi- 
cago,  111. 
Mrs.  Theodocia  Carpenter,  Strong  Junior  High  School,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 
Myrta  L.  Ely,  Supervisor  of  Penmanship,  Department  of  Education,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 
Harry  Houston,  Supervisor  of  Penmanship,  Board  of  Education,  New  Haven,  Conn. 
Lena  A.  Shaw,  Supervisor  of  Handwriting,  Board  of  Education,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Joseph  S.  Taylor,  District  Superintendent  of  Schools,  New  York  City. 
H.  C.  Walker,  Supervisor  of  Writing,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Reading 

William  S.  Gray  (Chairman)  Dean,  School  of  Education,  University  of  Chicago, 
Chicago,   111. 

Frank  W.  Ballou,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Ernest  Horn,  College  of  Education,  State  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City,  Iowa. 

Frances  Jenkins,  Assistant  Professor  of  Education,  University  of  Cincinnati,  Cincin- 
nati,  Ohio. 

[29] 


S.  A.  Leonard,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

W.  W.  Theisen,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

W.  L.  Uhl,  Department  of  Education,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

Laura  Zirbes,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 

Social  Studies 

Harold  O.  Rugg  (Chairman)  Lincoln  School,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, New   York   City. 

M.  G.  Clark,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Sioux  City,  Iowa. 

Earle  U.  Rugg,  Head,  Division  of  Education,  Colorado  State  Teachers  College, 
Greeley,    Colo. 

Spelling 

Ernest  Horn    (Chairman)    College   of  Education,   State   University  of  Iowa,   Iowa 

City,   Iowa. 
Leonard  P.  Ayres,  Vice  President,  Cleveland  Trust  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

B.  R.   Buckingham,    Director,   Bureau   of   Educational   Research,    Ohio    State   Uni- 

versity,  Columbus,   Ohio. 
John   M.   Foote,  Rural    School   Supervisor,    State   Department   of  Education,   Baton 

Rouge,   La. 
Helen  R.  Gumlick,  Supervisor,  Primary  Grades  and  Kindergarten,  Denver  Public 

Schools,    Denver,   Colo. 
W.  F.  Tidyman,  State  College,  Fresno,   Calif. 

C.  W.  Washburne,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Winnetka,  111. 

The  summer  school  class  at  the  University  of  Oregon,  conducted  by  Carleton 
W.  Washburne,  helped  in  collecting  and  reviewing  research  studies.  Those  so 
assisting  were:  Florence  E.  Anderson;  Wave  Anderson;  Edward  Anderton ; 
Edna  Biles;  LaMoine  R.  Clark;  Cora  E.  Coleman;  Lyndsay  L.  Eastland;  Almeda 
J.  Fuller;  E.  H.  Hedrick;  Guy  L.  Lee;  C.  L.  McFaddin;  Delphie  M.  Taylor;  J.  K. 
West;  L.  Lee  Williams;  and  F.  C.  Wooton. 


[30] 


INTRODUCTION 

TRADITION  and  opinion,  unsupported  by  facts,  are  no  longer  suf- 
ficient bases  for  including  any  subject  or  topic  in  the  public  school 
curriculum.  The  material  available  for  instruction  is  so  vast  that 
no  one  person  can  hope  to  master  more  than  a  small  portion  of  it.  How 
is  selection  to  be  made?  The  subjects  in  the  elementary  school  curriculum 
are  those  intended  for  universal  study.  They  must  meet  the  tests  of  social 
usefulness  and  individual  development,  achievement,  and  happiness.  Some 
of  the  research  studies  reviewed  in  this  section  represent  attempts  scientif- 
ically to  determine  what  subject-matter  is  socially  useful  in  present-day 
life.  Others  seek  to  learn  what  is  of  greatest  interest  to  children;  for, 
other  things  being  equal,  material  should  be  taught  at  the  moment  when 
the  use  for  it  is  apparent.  Hence,  the  studies  of  the  interests  of  children 
are  important  to  curriculum  makers. 

It  is  generally  accepted  that  the  traditional  curriculum  for  each  subject 
in  the  elementary  school  must  be  modified  to  satisfy  specific  objectives  and 
definite  outcomes  formulated  in  the  light  of  present-day  standards.  The 
immediate  needs  of  the  child,  the  future  demands  of  his  adult  life,  and  his 
capacity  for  education  are  all  determining  factors. 

The  drill  subjects,  where  the  content  is  definite,  have  been  dealt  with 
more  or  less  completely.  For  these  subjects  the  minimum  essentials  in 
functional  content  should  be  tentatively  determined  soon  by  research 
workers. 

In  this  section  of  the  Yearbook,  the  outstanding  research  studies  which 
have  been  made  up  to  date  are  reviewed.  In  some  subjects  the  research 
work  which  has  been  done  is  fragmentary.  This  largely  explains  why 
certain  subjects  are  treated  so  much  more  completely  than  others,  although 
space  allotment  in  the  Yearbook  was  to  some  extent  a  determining  factor. 
It  was  necessary  to  limit  the  number  of  studies  reviewed  in  those .  sub- 
jects where  extensive  research  has  been  carried  on. 

The  methods  of  attack  in  these  research  studies  represent  a  conscientious 
striving  for  the  scientific  solution  of  curricular  problems.  The  technique 
of  the  investigations  in  some  instances  is  crude.  In  the  absence  of  absolute 
measurement,  concensus  of  expert  opinion  as  well  as  of  mass  opinion,  has 
been  resorted  to.  Even  this  procedure,  however,  gives  an  approximation 
which  is  far  superior  to  the  personal  opinion  of  a  few  individuals. 

The  findings  of  some  investigations  are  incomplete.  They  should  serve 
as  starting  points  for  further  work,  not  as  bases  for  statements  of  uni- 
versality of  results.  These  studies  are  the  first  forward  steps  and  may  be 
more  useful  as  pointing  the  way  rather  than  as  presenting  conclusive 
results.  Perhaps  their  greatest  service  will  be  to  show  the  vastness  of  the 
task  of  bringing  the  elementary  school  curriculum  up  to  date  and  keeping 
it  there  and  to  emphasize  the  need  for  research  to  blaze  the  way  for  practice 
and  to  check  results  actually  obtained.  ;    c. 

r  3ii 


32  Department  of  Superintendence 

At  the  beginning  of  each  chapter  are  listed  problems  which  confront 
course-of-study  committees  in  outlining  that  subject.  In  so  far  as  possible 
these  questions  are  answered  by  a  review  of  scientific  studies  bearing 
upon  them.  The  number  of  unanswered  questions,  however,  shows  that 
at  the  present  time  the  outstanding  need  in  the  field  of  curriculum  construc- 
tion is  the  making  of  hundreds  of  technical  studies. 

This  section  of  the  Yearbook  pools  most  of  the  important  existing  au- 
ricular studies.  Here  is  made  available  much  material  of  high  value  which 
hithertofore  has  been  inaccessible  because  of  its  technical  form  and  presenta- 
tion, or  because  of  its  fragmentary  distribution.  The  analyses  of  the  studies 
which  follow  should  have  these  four  advantages :  " 

Many  mooted  curricular  questions  are  answered  ; 

Material  is  collected  for  a  later  program  of  evaluation; 

Information  is  presented  that  is  at  least  useful  in  the  form  of  suggestions ; 

Connecting  links  are  furnished  between  principles  and  practice. 

The  public  school  recognizes  as  its  first  aim  the  development  of  char- 
acter through  fixing  right  habits  of  conduct.  Such  habits  are  fundamental 
to  moral  integrity.  Preachments  of  the  moral  virtues  too  often  miss  their 
mark.  But  when  a  child  in  real  life  over  a  period  of  years  finds  himself 
in  a  situation  in  which  it  is  made  pleasant  to  be  honest,  to  cooperate  ef- 
fectively with  his  neighbors,  to  reverence  things  which  should  be  reverenced, 
progress  has  been  made  toward  developing  his  character. 

Research  workers  and  school  administrators  recognize  the  importance 
of  character  development  through  the  curriculum.  Progress  in  this  field 
has  been  more  rapid  during  the  past  year  than  ever  before. 

School  systems  in  revising  their  courses  of  study  are  shaping  their  whole 
school  programs,  so  that  every  subject  taught  and  every  school  activity 
engaged  in  make  their  proper  contribution  toward  the  development  of 
character. 

The  reader  will  probably  note  the  absence  of  any  report  of  researches  in 
the  important  subject  of  character-building.  The  members  of  the  Commis- 
sion recognize  the  paramount  importance  of  this  subject,  and  they  are  aware 
of  much  of  the  splendid  work  that  is  ,being  done,  both  directly  and  in- 
directly, by  both  public  and  private  schools  toward  character-building.  In 
many  cities,  notably,  Buffalo,  Philadelphia,  Salt  Lake  City,  Los  Angeles, 
and  Chicago,  there  are  well  organized  courses  in  use.  In  other  cities,  a 
course  in  character-building  comprises  a  definite  element  of  the  course  in 
civics,  or  citizenship.  In  practically  all  schools  of  the  country,  principals 
and  teachers  are  consciously  and  definitely  seeking  opportunities  for  the 
development  of  good  moral  habits  through  all  studies,  and  especially 
through  organized  play,  games,  athletics,  and  through  all  group  activities 
in  which  pupils  participate.  Progress  in  this  field  has  been  more  conspic- 
uous since  the  war  than  at  any  time  in  the  history  of  our  schools.  Un- 
fortunately, we  find  little  that  can  be  classified  as  scientific  research  in  this 
field.     To  quote  Professor  Edwin  D.  Starbuck:     "There  are  a' good  many 


The  Third  Yearbook  33 


studies  that  try  to  be  scientific  in  the  matter  of  character  education,  but 
they  surely  have  little  right  to  be  dignified  by  the  term,  research."  The 
Indiana  Survey,  by  Professor  Ahearn,  is  suggestive  of  what  may  be,  and 
needs  to  be,  done  in  this  field.  Several  studies  are  under  way.  Professor 
May,  of  Teachers  College,  and  Professor  Starbuck  are  just  now  engaged 
in  making  a  bibliography  of  such  studies. 

The  members  of  the  Commission  would  feel  remiss  in  their  duty  to  the 
children  of  our  schools,  if  they  did  not  urge  all  school  officials  who  are  en- 
gaged in  revising  their  courses  of  study  to  shape  their  programs  so  as  to 
make  definite  provision  for  character-building. 


CHAPTER  III 

ARITHMETIC 

Guy  M.  Wilson,  Professor  of  Education,  Boston   University,  Boston,  Massachusetts, 

Chairman 

A  RITHMETIC  is  not  an  end  in  itself.  It  is  a  tool.  To  meet  the 
L\  demands  of  social  utility,  three  phases  of  arithmetic  need  attention  : 
•*■  •*■  (1)  The  basic  experience  which  is  necessary  in  order  to  make 
manipulative  work  meaningful;  (2)  the  mastery  for  automatic  reproduc- 
tion of  the  useful  number  facts;  (3)  training  in  application  to  life  and 
business  situations. 

The  curriculum  demands  for  the  above  program  are  so  simple  that 
there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  yield  to  complete  analysis  and  scientific 
determination.  Much  scientific  progress  has  been  made.  The  problems 
needing  solution  may  be  listed  with  reasonable  completeness ;  on  some  there 
are  much  data. 

The  following  is  submitted  as  a  representative  statement  of  the  prob- 
lems on  which  further  scientific  evidence  is  wanted. 

Major  Curriculum  Problems  in  Arithmetic 

1.  Specifically,  what  is  the  purpose  of  arithmetic;  what  is  its  relation 
to  the  major  objectives  of  education? 

2.  How  much  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  the  building  up  of  ex- 
perience before  proceeding  with  the  manipulation  of  symbols?  In  other 
words,  this  is  the  problem  of  building  up  experience,  so  that  number  work 
shall  be  meaningful,  rich  in  application,  and  actually  useful  instead  of 
being  merely  formal  memory  work. 

3.  When  should  formal  drill  work  begin  and  at  what  rate  should  it  pro- 
ceed? In  this  connection,  there  is  needed  a  set  of  criteria  and  a  means  of 
checking,  so  that  drill  may  not  proceed  on  a  meaningless  basis. 

4.  Is  it  possible  to  replace  haphazard  drill  by  a  scheme  of  drill  that  is 
completely  systematized,  all  inclusive,  with  the  elements  ranked  on  the  basis 
of  difficulty?  This  complete  scheme  should  lend  itself  as  a  means  for 
checking  or  testing  the  entire  range  of  the  child's  ability  on  fundamental 
drill  needs. 

5.  What  is  the  proper  unit  of  instruction  in  arithmetic? 

6.  What  are  the  procedures  or  requirements  necessary  to  place  arith- 
metic on  a  100  per  cent  motivated  basis?  This  is  a  problem  of  making 
arithmetic  grow  out  of  pupil  experience  and  real  life  situations  that  are 
thoroughly  comprehended  by  the  children. 

7.  What  is  the  best  plan  for  eliminating  the  traditional  and  useless  in 
arithmetic  by  a  positive  procedure  that  shall  carry  conviction  to  teacher, 
pupil,  and  patron? 

[35] 


36  Department  of  Superintendence 

8.  By  what  plan  or  procedure  may  teachers  eliminate  merely  stock 
examples  in  so-called  reasoning  problems,  substituting  therefore  life  situa- 
tions worth  while  in  themselves? 

9.  What  are  the  reasonable  limits  of  general  arithmetic  or  arithmetic 
needed  by  the  consumer  group ;  where  does  vocational  arithmetic  begin ; 
and  what  are  the  specific  needs  for  arithmetic  by  the  various  vocational 
groups  ? 

10.  Is  it  possible  to  have  an  elastic  set  of  norms  or  standards  of  per- 
formance that  shall  include  speed,  difficulty,  and  accuracy,  and  make  proper 
allowance  for  individual  differences? 

11.  In  usable  form,  what  is  the  specific  psychology  involved  in  learning 
and  remembering  in  the  various  phases  of  arithmetic  work — drill,  reasoning, 
and  application  to  life  situations? 

12.  How  much  of  the  failure  in  lower  grade  arithmetic  may  be  ac- 
counted for  by  low  ability  in  reading,  and  what  adjustments  in  time 
schedule  are  necessary  to  make  sure  that  reading  ability  is  adequate  to  carry 
the  necessary  work  in  arithmetic? 

13.  How  replace  the  formal  textbook  procedure  by  the  actual  figuring 
used  in  business?  In  other  words,  what  is  wanted  is  a  method  by  which 
the  children  may  learn  of  the  actual  figuring  used  in  business  and  be  con- 
scious themselves  that  they  are  figuring  in  practically  the  same  form  in 
which  it  is  being  done  by  adults. 

14.  How  should  we  profitably  use  the  time  usually  alloted  to  arithmetic  ? 
Sixteen  and  two  thirds  per  cent  of  all  school  time  for  arithmetic,  as  shown 
by  previous  studies,  is  obviously  more  than  is  justified.  Shall  the  extra 
time  be  used  as  a  vehicle,  or  excuse,  for  approach  to  other  aims  in  educa- 
tion: for  example,  effective  home  membership  through  the  study  of  the 
budget,  the  civic-economic  aim  through  a  study  of  the  cost  of  strikes,  etc., 
or  shall  the  time  devoted  to  arithmetic  be  reduced  as  made  possible  and 
desirable  by  the  greater  efficiency  of  present-day  teaching  and  the  broader 
view  of  present  educational  objectives? 

The  Committee's  Plan  of  Report 

The  Committee  sought  to  obtain  a  review  of  all  important  studies,  pub- 
lished or  unpublished,  and  to  organize  the  findings  as  answers  to  definite 
problems.  The  references  in  the  Judd-Buswell  Commonwealth  Fund 
bibliography  on  arithmetic  were  divided  among  the  Committee  for  review, 
and  the  entire  country  was  sectioned  for  the  gathering  of  unpublished 
studies.  Members  of  the  Committee  gave  such  unlimited  time  and  effort, 
that  finally,  the  chief  handicap  of  the  Committee  is  lack  of  space  assign- 
ment to  include  its  full  report. 

The  report  takes  up  successively  the  following  problems: 

I.  When  should  formal  arithmetic  begin?     (Stone). 
II.  What  are  the  socially  useful  processes?     (Woody). 
III.  According  to  what  criteria  should  drill  be  organized?,    (Knight). 


The  Third  Yearbook  37 


IV.  What  is  the  best  procedure  for  building  up  ability  to  handle  concrete 

or  reasoning  problems?     {Clark). 
V.  What    has   psychology   and   experimental    education    to   contribute? 
{Myers  and  Osburn). 
VI.  What  help  from  standard  tests?     {Wilson). 

VII.  What  is  the  method  of  curricular  determination  in  arithmetic? 
{Wilson). 
For  several  reasons  these  problems  will  not  receive  a  well-balanced  treat- 
ment. The  amount  of  available  data  varies,  and,  due  to  the  manner  of 
apportioning  the  work,  some  problems  received  much  more  attention  than 
others.  The  chairman  took  the  liberty  of  reducing  his  own  work  to  a 
mere  summary  in  order  to  make  space  for  the  carefully  prepared  work 
of  Woody  and  Knight. 

I.  When  Should  Formal  Arithmetic  Begin? 

The  term  "formal  arithmetic,"  as  here  defined,  means  formal  drill  work 
and  a  definite  attempt  to  teach  for  automatic  reproduction  the  number 
combinations  in  the  fundamental  processes,  such  as  simple  fractions.  Since 
the  purpose  of  drill  is  to  fix  by  repetition  something  previously  compre- 
hended, it  is  evident  that  drill  should  follow,  not  precede  adequate  ex- 
perience and  understanding.  Moreover,  there  should  be  on  the  part  of 
the  child  before  he  begins  formal  repetition  a  real  feeling  of  need  and 
clear  vision  of  use  and  application — in  short,  there  should  be  complete 
motivation.  The  psychology  of  interest  is  so  well  established  by  scientific 
evidence  that  this  statement  should  go  unchallenged. 

Obviously,  there  is  a  tremendous  opportunity  for  individual  differences 
in  the  date  of  beginning  formal  drill.  Dr.  Washburne  at  Winnetka,  Illi- 
nois, and  Miss  Ringer  at  Longbranch,  Washington,  have  shown  how  to 
adapt  a  drill  technique  to  differences  in  interest  and  capacity.  There  are 
a  few  other  considerations  involved.  The  relation  of  reading  is  evidently 
one  consideration.  The  total  profit  resulting  from  work  in  a  lower  grade 
is  another  consideration.  Scientific  evidence  is  meager.  Three  studies 
which  have  a  bearing  follow : 

STUDY  NO.  I.  Taylor,  Joseph  S.  "Omitting  arithmetic  in  the  first 
year,"  Educational  Administration  and  Supervision.  February,  1916. 
pp.  87-93. 

This  is  an  experiment  conducted  in  Public  School  No.  16,  the  Bronx, 
New  York  City  during  1913  to  1915.  During  the  first  of  these  two  years, 
half  the  entering  children  in  the  school  did  no  work  in  arithmetic  except 
counting.  The  extra  time  was  devoted  to  reading.  At  the  close  of  the 
second  year  of  the  experiment,  children  who  had  had  two  years  of  formal 
number  work  and  those  who  had  had  but  one  year — the  children  being 
otherwise  equivalent — were  compared  by  the  use  of  standard  tests.  A 
summary  of  the  results  follows: 


38  Department  of  Superintendence 

2A  Tests  Oral  Written 

Classes  with  arithmetic  in  first  year 81.0  72.6 

Classes  omitting  arithmetic  in  first  year 87.1  89.4 

2B  Tests 

Classes  with  arithmetic  in  first  year 87.2  69.5 

Classes  omitting  arithmetic  in  first  year 90.7  61.0 

From  this  summary  it  is  evident  that  the  classes  which  omitted  formal 
number  work  during  the  first  year  of  school  and  gave  the  extra  time  to 
reading  were,  all  told,  at  an  advantage  by-  the  close  of  the  second  year. 
The  quality  and  quantity  of  reading  greatly  improved,  while  the  number 
work  showed  improvement — that  is,  in  the  2A  tests  the  children  omitting 
number  work  in  the  first  year  were  superior  in  both  oral  and  written 
work,  while  in  the  2B  tests  they  were  superior  in  the  oral  and  inferior 
in  the  written.  The  totals,  therefore,  appear  to  favor  omitting  formal 
number  work  from  the  first  year  and  giving  the  time  to  reading.  This 
is  the  interpretation  placed  upon  the  results  by  Taylor,  the  author. 

STUDY  NO.  2.  Hackler,  John  Monroe.  The  relation  between  suc- 
cessful progress  in  mathematics  and  the  ability  to  read  and  understand,  and 
the  factors  that  contribute  to  success  or  failure  in  mathematics.  An  un- 
published master's  thesis  in  the  library  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  Chi- 
cago, 111.    September,  1921. 

Problem.  The  main  problem,  as  stated  in  the  title,  is  to  ascertain 
whether  ability  in  mathematics  depends  on  ability  to  read,  at  least  to  a 
certain  extent.  Apparently,  comprehension-ability  in  silent  reading  is  the 
thing  in  the  author's  mind,  since  silent  reading  tests  were  used. 

Method.  Tests  were  given  in  silent  reading  and  intelligence,  and 
teachers'  estimates  were  obtained  in  mathematics  and  other  subjects  and 
correlated  with  each  other.  The  experiment  was  conducted  with  40 
students  in  the  preparatory  department  first-year  class  in  mathematics  in 
the  Northeastern  State  Normal  School,  Tahlequah,  Oklahoma,  and  with 
the  pupils  of  Grades  III  to  VIII  inclusive,  of  the  Tahlequah  city  schools. 
The  class  in  the  preparatory  department  corresponds  roughly  to  a  first- 
year  high-school  class,  but  is  far  more  heterogeneous,  containing  a  wide 
range  of  ages,  and  for  this  reason  the  correlation  studies  of  this  group 
are  supplemented  by  an  individual  analysis. 

Conclusions  and  Results.  The  results  of  this  investigation  have  not 
confirmed  the  original  hypothesis  to  the  extent  expected.  It  has  failed 
to  show  that  ability  to  succeed  in  mathematics  depends  to  any  great  extent 
upon  reading  ability.  Results  with  the  preparatory  school  class  showed 
correlations  of  — (—  .36  between  the  Kansas  Silent  Reading  Test  and  teach- 
ers' estimates  of  ability  in  first-year  mathematics  by  the  "listed  pairs" 
method,  and  -(-.60  by  the  Ranks'  method.  In  the  city  schools  positive 
correlations  of  from  .22  to  .70  were  obtained  between  reading  tests  and 
teachers'  estimates  in  arithmetic. 


The  Third  Yearbook  39 


The  author  states,  "Personal  investigations  and  analysis  of  individual 
cases  lead  to  the  belief  that  reading  ability  is  a  factor  in  successful  work 
in  mathematics." 

STUDY  NO.  3.  The  effect  of  a  years  drive  on  motivated  reading  in 
arithmetic  for  mixed  drill  tests.  Unpublished  study,  University  of  Iowa, 
reported  by  F.  B.  Knight. 

Data:  111  pupils  in  grades  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  and  8.  Public  Schools,  Rad- 
cliff,  Iowa. 

Tests  used:  Arithmetic  computation  phase  of  Stanford  Achievement 
Test. 

Time  of  testing:  First  test,  September  15,  1923;  Second  test,  May  15, 
1924. 

Results:  I.  Whole  group  of  111  pupils: 

A.  Beginning  status 

1.  Average  actual  arithmetic,   com- 

prehension age  138.5  months 

2.  Average     theoretical     arithmetic, 

comprehension  age  144.6  months 

3.  Average  loss  in  arithmetic  com- 

prehension  age   due  to   faulty 

reading  6.1  months 

B.  Status    after    one    year    of    motivated 

drive  on  reading 

1.  Average   actual    arithmetic   com- 

prehension age  165.3  months 

2.  Average     theoretical     arithmetic 

comprehension  age  166.0  months 

3.  Average  loss  in  arithmetic  com- 

prehension  age  due   to  faulty 

reading  .7  month 

C.  Gain  in  arithmetic  comprehension  age 

due    to    improvement    in    ability    to 

resist  influence  of  isolated  drill  5.4  months 

II.  Group  of  67  pupils  who  made  errors  due  to 
reading : 

A.  Average  loss  in  arithmetic  comprehen- 

sion age  due  to  faulty  reading.   First 

test  10.0  months 

B.  Average  loss  in  arithmetic  comprehen- 

sion age  due  to  faulty  reading  after 
year's  drive  1.0  month 

•  C.  Gain  in  arithmetic  comprehension  age 

due  to  improvement  in  reading  9.1  months 


40  Department  of  Superintendence 

, % 

III.  Gains  during  year  in  arithmetic  comprehen- 

sion age  as  result  of  year's  drive  on  moti- 
vated reading  of  arithmetic: 

A.  Average  gain  of  67  faulty  readers  29.7  months 

B.  Average  gain  of  44  good  readers.  21.2  months 

C.  Excess  gain  in  arithmetic  comprehen- 

sion age  of  faulty  readers  over  good 

readers  8.5  months 

IV.  Summaries: 

.  A.  Gain  in  arithmetic  comprehension  age 
of  faulty  readers  due  to  improve- 
ment in  reading  9.1  months 
B.  Excess  gain  in  arithmetic  comprehen- 
sion age  of  faulty  readers  over  good 
readers  8.5  months 
V.  Conclusion : 

The  excess  gain  made  in  arithmetic  comprehension  age 
made  by  the  original  faulty  readers  over  the  original  good 
readers  was  in  the  main  due  to  their  improvement  in  the 
specific  type  of  reading  needed  in  offsetting  the  influence 
of  isolated  drill — namely,  ability  to  follow  directions  call- 
ing for  several  processes  in  mixed  order. 

Conclusion.  The  above  studies  and  data  are  obviously  inconclusive. 
They  do,  however, -point  to  the  desirability  of  more  careful  attention  to 
reading  and  the  entire  omission  of  formal  number  work  from  the  first  grade. 
These  conclusions  are  supported  by  much  unscientific  evidence  from  various 
parts  of  the  country,  some  of  which  may  be  briefly  recounted. 

Professor  Stone  reports  that  the  demonstration  and  practice  school  in 
the  State  Normal  College  of  Ypsilanti,  Michigan,  1902-1911  began  formal 
number  work  in  the  third  grade,  except  counting  and  simple  addition  and 
subtraction,  facts  that  arose  in  regular  school  activities.  The  public  schools 
of  that  city  began  number  work  in  the  first  year.  Pupils  entering  the 
training  school  from  the  city  schools  in  the  fourth  year  showed  a  little 
advantage  in  written  work  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  but  by  the  end 
of  the  second  semester  there  was  no  difference  between  those  who  had  had 
number  work  for  three  and  one  half  years  and  those  who  had  had  num- 
ber work  for  only  one  and  one  half  years. 

Dr.  H.  L.  Smith  in  the  Bloomington  (Illinois)  Survey  shows  that  chil- 
dren who  had  had  no  formal  number  work  in  grades  one  and  two  were 
not  handicapped  by  the  end  of  the  third  year  in  competition  with  children 
who  had  had  number  work  regularly  during  the  first  and  second  year. 

II.  What  are  the  Socially  Useful  Processes? 

McMurry,  as  long  ago  as  1904,  with  keen  insight,  called  the  attention 
of  superintendents  to  the  fact  that  many  processes  taught  in  arithmetic  had 


The  Third  Yearbook  41 


little  or  no  social  value.  His  opinion  was  supported  again  and  again,  but 
then  as  now  mere  opinion  carried  less  weight  than  scientific  evidence. 
Fortunately,  a  method  has  been  discovered  for  gathering  such  scientific 
data.  The  actual  analysis  of  usage  has  become  the  basis  for  inclusion  of 
processes  found  useful,  or  the  exclusion  of  processes  not  used. 

Mrs.  Gallaway's  study  deals  with  the  needs  of  freshmen  college  girls 
who  take  a  course  in  clothing.  Obviously,  with  the  basic  arithmetic  taught 
and  with  the  evident  need  at  hand,  college  women  will  master  additional 
arithmetic  as  needed.  The  same  statement  applies  to  the  study  of  Williams 
dealing  with  the  mathematics  needed  in  freshman  chemistry.  If  chemistry 
calls  for  more  arithmetic,  then  is  the  time  to  teach  it. 

The  other  studies  divide  themselves  sharply  into  two  classes,  according 
to  viewpoint.  Adams  and  Mitchell  are  dealing  chiefly  with  ability  to  read 
numbers  and  understand  them  in  general  and  not  with  manipulative  ability; 
on  the  other  hand,  the  studies  by  Charters,  Hanus,  Wilson,  Wise,  and 
Woody  deal  with  manipulative  skills  demanded  of  adults.  It  should  be 
noted  that  these  two  viewpoints  show  radically  different  results. 

For  a  century  or  more  after  the  founding  of  Yale  University,  it  was 
possible  for  students  to  enter  without  knowing  the  multiplication  table, 
yet  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  general  reading  ability  called  for  in  the 
Adams  study  was  met.  Doubtless  also  the  multiplication  table  was 
learned,  but  the  point  is  that  there  is  no  established  and  verified  relationship 
between  the  general  understanding  required  for  reading  ability  and  the 
automatic  response  required  for  calculating.  The  findings  from  these 
studies  point  strongly  to  the  following  conclusions :  ( 1 )  That  experience 
must  in  all  cases  precede  formal  work  in  calculating;  (2)  that  manipulative 
or  calculating  skill  required  is  relatively  small  and  not  a  matter  of  momen- 
tary occurrence  to  even  the  busiest  of  adults;  and  (3)  many  processes  long 
retained  in  the  textbooks  in  arithmetic  have  practically  zero  value. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  most  superintendents  of  schools  today  would  agree 
to  the  complete  elimination  of  the  following  processes: 

Compound    numbers,    addition,    subtrac-  Proportion. 

tion,  multiplication,   division.  Ratio  beyond  the  ability  of  fractions  to 

Greatest  common  divisor  and  least  com-  satisfy. 

mon    multiple    beyond    the    power    of  Partnership  with  time. 

inspection.  Longitude   and  time. 

Long    confusing    problems    in    common  Exchange,   domestic   and   foreign. 

fractions.  Apothecaries'   weight. 

Complex  and  compound  fractions.  Troy  weight. 

Reductions  of  denominate  numbers.  Table  of  folding  paper,  surveyor's  table, 

Cases  two  and  three  in  percentage.  table  of  foreign  money. 

Annual    interest.  Much  of  mensuration — trapezoid,  trape- 

Compound  interest,  except  savings.  zium,  polygons,  frustrums,  spheres. 

Partial    payments.  Cube  root. 

True    discount.                 ,  The   metric   system. 


42  Department  of  Superintendence 

The  curriculum  in  arithmetic  should  make  no  provision  for  formal  drill 
on  the  above  processes.  This  does  not  preclude  some  "informational" 
attention  to  them,  or  some  special  attention  whenever  one  of  them  is  in- 
volved in  a  "life  situation"  studied  in  detail  by  the  pupils. 

A  summary  by  Woody  of  the  scientific  evidence  follows  in  order  of  ap- 
pearance : 

1.  Computational  uses  of  arithmetic — The  findings  on  the  computa- 
tional uses  of  arithmetic  are  so  different  from  those  on  informational  or 
general  reading  usage  that  it  seems  wise  to  separate  the  studies.  The  com- 
putational uses  are  much  simpler,  and  according  to  Woody  (Study  No. 
14),  they  are  being  further  reduced  by  the  uses  of  commercial  calculating 
machines.  By  separating  the  studies  into  these  two  divisions  they  show 
great  consistency  as  to  conclusions. 

STUDY  NO.  4.*  Wilson,  Guy  M.  Connersville  course  in  math 
ematics.  1911;  republished  by  Warwick  and  York,  1922.  Baltimore, 
Maryland. 

Problem.  To  get  the  sentiment  and  goodwill  of  the  business  men  of 
Connersville  in  the  construction  of  the  course  of  study  in  arithmetic  in 
the  public  schools  of  that  city. 

Method.  The  following  questionnaire  was  submitted  to  the  business 
men  for  consideration: 

(1)  At  present  the  school  time  in  the  grades  is  divided  approximately 
as  follows:  Reading,  26  per  cent;  arithmetic,  16  per  cent;  language,  12 
per  cent ;  history,  1 1  per  cent ;  geography,  8  per  cent ;  spelling,  7  per  cent ; 
music,  6  per  cent;  drawing,  6  per  cent;  writing,  4  per  cent;  physiology, 
4  per  cent.  Does  this  appeal  to  you  as  a  proper  division  of  school  time  in 
the  grades? 

(2)  Stated  differently,  English  receives  49.2  per  cent  of  the  school  time 
in  the  grades;  the  three  R's  receive  65.24  per  cent;  the  fundamentals  (the 
three  R's  plus  geography  and  history)  receive  86.09  per  cent;  the  special 
subjects  (physiology,  music,  and  drawing)  13.91  per  cent.  Does  your  ex- 
perience suggest  any  change  of  emphasis? 

(3)  Following  are  some  topics  we,  as  boys,  studied  in  arithmetic  in  the 
grades.  Check  ( V )  the  topics  for  which  you  have  had  considerable  use 
during  the  past  six  months.  Cross  (X).  the  topics  for  which  you  have 
had  little  or  no  use  during  the  six  months : 

Troy  weight  Foreign  exchange 

Longitude  and  time  Compound  proportion 

The  surveyor's  table  True  discount 

The  greatest  common  divisor  Cases  2  and  3  in  percentage 

The  least  common  multiple  Compound  interest 

Complex  fractions  Partial  payments 

Cube  root  Partnership 
Compound  fractions 


The  studies  are  numbered  consecutively  throughout  the  chapter  for  convenience  in  reference. 


The  Third  Yearbook  43 


May  some  of  these  topics  be  omitted  from  our  arithmetic  work  without 
material  loss?    Which  ones? 

(4)  Following  are  some  topics  we  did  not  study  in  arithmetic  as  boys: 
Saving  and  loaning  money  Keeping  simple  accounts 
Mortgages  Investing  money 

Modern  banking  methods  Bonds  as  investments 

Building  and  loan  associations 

Real  estate  as  investments    (cheap   rentals,  good   residence  property, 

business  blocks,  farm  lands  as  investments) 
Marks  of  a  good  investment   (It  is  estimated  that  the  get-rich-quick 

concerns  fleece  the  American  people  out  of  $60,000,000  a  year) 
Taxes,  levies,  public  expenditures 
Profits  in  different  lines  of  business 
Check  (V)   anY  of  the  above  that  appeal  to  you  as  worthy  of  a  place 
in  present-day  arithmetic  work. 

(5)  Connersville  is  developing  important  industrial  and  commercial 
interests.  To  what  extent  should  those  interests  have  an  influence  in  shap- 
ing a  course  of  study  for  our  schools,  especially  in  arithmetic? 

(6)  Suggest  some  feasible  plan  of  bringing  the  schools  into  closer  rela- 
tions with  the  industrial,  commercial,  and  business  interests  of  our  com- 
munity.   Give  some  figures  and  problems  from  your  own  business. 

Findings.  1.  On  questions  (1)  and  (2)  few  suggestions  were  made. 
Of  these,  most  recommended  reducing  the  time  given  to  drawing  and 
increasing  the  time  given  to  writing  and  spelling. 

2.  On  question  (3)  the  business  men  reported  which  topics  had  been 
little  used  and  suggested  that  they  be  eliminated  from  the  course  of  study, 
There  was  meager  support  for  cube  root,  compound  proportion,  cases  in 
percentage,  and  the  surveyor's  table,  and  the  majority  favored  eliminating 
these  and  putting  the  time  on  the  fundamentals. 

3.  On  question  (4)  all  agreed  that  every  topic  should  be  included  in  the 
course  of  study. 

4.  On  question  (5)  all  agreed  that  the  schools  and  the  course  of  study 
should  take  into  consideration  the  industrial  and  commercial  interests  of  the 
community. 

5.  On  question  (6)  nothing  of  consequence  was  submitted. 

STUDY  NO.  5.  Jessup,  W.  A.  and  Coffman,  L.  D.  The  supervision 
of  arithmetic,  Chapters  I  and  II.    New  York,  Macmillan,  1916.   pp.  1-38. 

Problem.  To  determine  the  attitude  of  city  and  county  superintendents 
toward  the  elimination  of  certain  questionable  subject-matter  and  the  intro- 
duction of  certain  other  new  subject-matter. 

Method.  The  following  letter  was  sent  to  all  superintendents  of  schools 
in  cities  of  4000  population  or  over,  and  to  every  sixth  county  superin- 
tendent in  the  United  States : 


44  Department  of  Superintendence 

Underscore  once  the  subjects  which  should  receive  slight  attention ; 
underscore  twice  the  subjects  which  should  be  eliminated. 

Apothecaries'  weight,  troy  weight,  furlong,  rod  in  square  measure, 
drachm,  quarter  in  avoirdupois  weight,  surveyor's  tables,  foreign  money, 
folding  papers,  reduction  of  more  than  two  steps,  long  method  of  finding 
greatest  common  divisor,  lowest  common  multiple,  true  discount,  cube 
root,  partnership,  compound  proportion,  compound  and  complex  fractions, 
cases  in  percentage,  annual  interest,  longitude  and  time,  unreal  fractions, 
alligation,  metric  system,  progression,  and  "aliquot  parts. 

Others 

Underscore  subjects  which  should  receive  more  attention  than  is  usually 
given : 

Addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  division,  fractions,  percentage, 
interest  saving  and  loaning  money,  banking,  borrowing,  building  and  loan 
associations,  investments,  stocks  and  bonds,  taxes,  levies,  public  expendi- 
tures, insurance  as  protection  and  investment,  profits  in  business,  and 
public  utilities. 

Findings.  1.  Replies  were  received  from  52  per  cent  of  the  superin- 
tendents of  the  city  schools,  and  from  24  per  cent  of  the  superintendents  of 
the  county  schools. 

2.  There  was  a  majority  of  those  reporting  in  favor  of  increasing  the 
emphasis  on  the  four  fundamental  operations,  and  upon  phases  of  arithmetic 
involving  savings  and  loaning  of  money,  taxation,  public  expenditures, 
fractions,  insurance,  and  percentage. 

3.  Between  10  and  50  per  cent  of  those  reporting  favored  increased 
emphasis  on  stocks  and  bonds,  levies,  banking,  interest,  building  and  loan 
associations,  and  profits. 

4.  Over  half  of  the  superintendents  reporting  favored  eliminating: 
apothecaries'  weight,  rod  in  square  measure,  drachm,  quarter  in  avoirdupois 
weight,  compound  proportion,  unreal  fractions,  alligation,  and  progression. 

5.  From  8  to  50  per  cent  of  all  the  replies  favored  elimination  of  all 
other  topics  included  in  the  second  half  of  the  questionnaire. 

STUDY  NO.  6.  Chase,  Sara  E.  "Waste  in  arithmetic."  Teachers 
College  Record,  Volume  18,  No.  4,  September,  1917.  New  York,  Bureau 
of  Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  1917.  pp.  350- 
371. 

Problem.  1.  To  determine  waste  through  the  measurement  of  the  per- 
manent effects  resulting  from  the  teaching  of  mensuration  and  through 
ascertaining  the  extent  to  which  various  terms  and  operations  involved  in 
mensuration  were  used  in  life  outside  of  school. 

2.  To  determine  the  waste  due  to  the  pupil's  unfamiliarity  with  the 
language  and  conditions  of  given  problems. 

Part  I.  Method.  Test  I.  Sheets  of  paper,  upon  which  were  drawn 
a  square,  a  rectangle,  a  rhomboid,  a  triangle,  and  a  circle,  were  given  with 


The  Third  Yearbook 


45 


a  ruler  to  the  following  groups  of  students  who  were  told  to  determine  the 
exact  area  of  each  figure : 

Group      I.  One  hundred  and  twenty-three  pupils  in  Grades  IX  to  XII. 

Group  II.  Thirty-eight  pupils  in  Grade  IX  who  had  just  spent  three 
months  in  mensuration. 

Group  III.  Thirty  pupils  in  Grade  XI  in  a  technical  high  school  three 
months  after  they  had  completed  mensuration  in  connection 
with  plane  geometry. 

Group  IV.  Fifteen  adult  students  at  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. 

Findings. 
In  Group  I 

Forty-four  per  cent  could  not  find  any  of  the  areas. 
Ninety-three  per  cent  failed  on  the  rhomboid. 
Fifty-five  per  cent  failed  on  the  square. 

In  Group  II  > 

Twenty-four  per  cent  could  not  find  any  of  the  areas. 

Ninety-three  per  cent  failed  on  the  rhomboid. 

Thirty-two  per  cent  failed  on  the  square. 
Even  in  Group  IV  there  was  considerable  failure. 

Test  II.  As  another  test,  the  following  lists  of  areas  and  volumes  (1) 
area  of  square,  rectangle,  triangle,  circle,  and  rhomboid;  (2)  entire  surface 
of  a  cube,  prism,  pyramid,  cylinder;  (3)  volume  of  a  cube,  prism,  cylinder, 
were  given  to  the  following  groups  of  people:  (a)  Pupils  in  school,  (b) 
teachers  of  drawing,  sewing,  and  manual  training,  (c)  one  hundred  forty 
men  and  women  engaged  in  various  occupations.  These  different  groups 
were  asked  to  cross  out  all  items  in  the  given  list  which  they  had  not  used 
in  their  life  out  of  school. 

Findings.  Seventy-eight  per  cent  of  all  the  pupils  crossed  off  every- 
thing. Teachers  of  manual  training  said  that  board  measure  was  needed 
to  compute  cost,  but  no  other  areas  were  needed  in  this  work.  Teachers  of 
other  subjects  answered  that  neither  areas  nor  volumes  were  needed  for 
their  work.  Of  the  workers,  68  per  cent  of  the  women  and  30  per  cent  of 
the  men  crossed  off  everything. 


TABLE    i.— PERCENTAGE    OF    MEN    AND    WOMEN    USING    DIFFERENT 
ITEMS  IN  ARITHMETIC 


Area  of 

Men 

Women 

Entire  surface 
of 

Men 

Women 

Volume  of 

Men 

Women 

66% 

61 
42 
32 

11 

27 
26 

8 
12 

3 

Cube 

Prism 

Pyramid 

Cylinder 

38 
20 
9   • 

24 

8 
5 
0 
5 

Cube 

Prism 

Cylinder 

Square  root  of 
number. 

39 

18 
36 

41 

9 

Rectangle 

Triangle 

Circle 

Rhomboid 

8 

9 

12 

46  Department  of  Superintendence 

Part  II.  Method.  Vocabulary  tests,  patterned  -after  the  Thorndike 
Vocabulary  Tests  were  made  from  words  in  textbooks  in  arithmetic  and 
given  to  pupils  in  appropriate  grades. 

Findings.  Results  show  a  woeful  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  vocabulary 
used  in  the  written  problems  of  arithmetic.  Below  is  a  list  of  words  and 
the  percentage  of  pupils  in  each  grade  failing  to  use  each  word  in  a  sentence 
to  illustrate  its  meaning: 

Percentage   of   pupils    in 


Grade 

III 

Grade    IV 

G 

rade   V 

80 
40 
90 

40 
20 
60 
95 

24 

The  grocer   

20 

o 

The  contractor 

80 

Children  in  the  city  do  not  know  what  is  meant  by  "bin,  head  of  cattle, 
loading  grain,  etc."  The  article  makes  a  plea  for  the  use  of  concrete  situa- 
tions true  to  life  and  within  the  child's  experience. 

STUDY  NO.  7.  Hanus,  Paul  H,  and  Gaylord,  Harry  D.  "Courtis 
arithmetic  tests  applied  to  employees  in  business  houses."  Journal  of  Edu- 
cational Administration   and  Supervision,  Volume   3,    No.   9,   November, 

1917.    pp.  505-520. 

Problem.  To  find  out  how  the  results  achieved  on  the  Courtis  Research 
Test,  Series  B,  by  446  employees  of  one  of  the  largest  trust  companies  and 
one  of  the  largest  department  stores  in  Boston  compared  with  those  achieved 
by  the  pupils  in  Grade  VIII  in  the  Boston  public  schools. 

Method.  The  Courtis  tests  were  given  to  the  employees  in  groups  of 
approximately  35  individuals  and  the  results  obtained  compared  with  the 
achievements  in  Grade  VIII  in  the  Boston  public  schools. 

Findings.  1.  In  addition,  the  median  number  of  problems  solved  by 
the  employees  was  22.87  per  cent;  the  median  accuracy,  88.6  per  cent.  By 
the  pupils  in  Grade  VIII,  the  median  number  of  problems  correctly  solved 
was  12.9  per  cent;  the  median  accuracy,  77  per  cent.  Many  of  the  em- 
ployees finished  the  test  before  the  end  of  eight  minutes. 

2.  In  subtraction,  the  median  number  of  exercises  solved  by  the  employees 
was  19.3  per  cent  with  a  median  accuracy  of  85.3  per  cent  correct;  by  the 
pupils  in  Grade  VIII,  12.9  per  cent  exercises  correct  with  an  accuracy  of 
90  per  cent.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  pupils  in  Grade  VIII  were 
approximately  five  per  cent  more  accurate  than  the  employees. 

3.  In  multiplication,  the  median  number  of  exercises  solved  by  the 
employees  was  13.8  per  cent  with  a  median  accuracy  of  64.8  per  cent;  the 
median  number  of  exercises  correctly  solved  by  the  pupils  was  11.8  per 
cent  with  a  median  accuracy  of  82  per  cent.  Note  that  the  'pupils  solved 
almost  as  many  problems  and  were  much  more  accurate. 


The  Third  Yearbook  47 


4.  In  division,  the  median  number  of  exercises  solved  by  the  employees 
was  11.1  per  cent  with  an  accuracy  of  84.8  per  cent;  the  median  number 
of  exercises  by  the  pupils,  12.2  per  cent  correct  with  a  median  accuracy  of 
94  per  cent.  Note  that  the  pupils  worked  more  problems  and  were  more 
accurate. 

5.  Analysis  of  the  results  showed  that  the  accountants  in  the  department 
store  made  much  higher  scores  than  the  salesgirls,  and  that  bookkeepers  in 
the  bank  made  higher  scores  than  those  in  the  listing  department.  It  is 
possible  that  the  former  groups  were  more  highly  selected,  but  the  fact  that 
their  speed  in  addition  was  much  greater  in  proportion  than  that  in  other 
operations  suggests  that  the  greatest  efficiency  results  from  greater  practice 
rather  than  selection  of  higher  initial  ability.  Relatively  greater  practice 
in  multiplication  and  division  on  the  part  of  the  school  children  of  Boston 
accounts  for  their  higher  percentage  of  accuracy. 

STUDY  NO.  8.  Wilson,  G.  M.  "A  survey  of  the  social  and  business 
use  of  arithmetic."  A  preliminary  study.  16th  Yearbook,  Part  I.  Na- 
tional Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.  1919.  Wilson,  G.  M.  "The 
social  and  business  uses  of  arithmetic."  Teachers  College  Contributions, 
No.  100.    New  York,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univ.    pp.  1-62. 

Problem.  To  determine  the  nature  of  the  arithmetic  used  by  adults  in 
their  social  and  business  relations. 

Method.  Study  based  upon  the  analysis  of  14,583  problems  contributed 
by  4068  different  persons  representing  155  different  occupations.  These 
problems  were  collected  through  the  cooperation  of  superintendents  and 
teachers  in  the  public  schools  of  the  east  and  the  middle-west,  who  asked 
the  children  in  Grades  VI,  VII,  and  VIII  to  get  from  their  parents,  each 
night  for  a  period  of  two  weeks,  a  statement  of  the  uses  which  they  had 
made  of  arithmetic  during  the  day.  The  statements  of  the  problems 
encountered,  thus  collected,  provided  the  data  upon  which  this  study  was 
based.  The  author  contended  that  the  data  were  extensive  and  varied 
enough  to  be  representative  of  adult  social  and  business  life. 

Findings.  1.  Eighty-five  per  cent  of  all  problems  involved  the  use  of 
money  in  either  the  buying  or  selling  of  goods.  Labor  and  wages,  interest, 
rent,  and  insurance  covered  two  thirds  of  the  problems  involving  money, 
but  not  involving  buying  or  selling.  Problems  not  involving  money 
involved  hours  of  labor,  measurement  of  capacity  of  bins,  cisterns,  cribs, 
tanks,  estimates  of  building  materials,  etc. 

2.  Of  all  the  problems  involving  buying  and  selling,  45.9  per  cent  related 
to  food;  17.9  per  cent  to  clothing.  For  all  occupations  the  ten  topics 
involved  the  greatest  number  of  times  in  the  different  problems  were: 
groceries,  dry  goods,  labor,  milk,  making  change,  meat,  eggs,  clothing, 
butter,  and  fuel. 

3.  Multiplication,  addition,  subtraction,  division,  and  fractions  reported 
constituted  90.6  per  cent  of  all  the  problems.     Little  use  was  made  of  pro- 


48  Department  of  Superintendence 

portion,  decimals,  apothecaries'  weight,  square  root,  partial  payments,  and 
troy  weight.  When  these  topics  were  involved  the  problems  were  too 
complicated  for  the  elementary  grades. 

4.  In  the  problems  involving  addition  only  two  and  one  half  per  cent  of 
the  problems  had  more  than  four  places  in  the  largest  addend.  Almost  all 
of  the  multiplication  problems  had  either  one  or  two  place  numbers  in  the 
multiplier.  In  division  39.6  per  cent  of  all  the  problems  had  one  number 
in  the  divisor;  43.4  per  cent  had  two-place  numbers  in  the  divisor. 

5.  The  most  commonly  used  fractions  had  denominators  of  halves,  thirds, 
fourths,  fifths,  and  eighths. 

6.  The  following  processes  did  not  appear  in  the  adult  figuring  reported : 
greatest  common  divisor,  least  common  multiple,  long  confusing  problems 
in  common  fractions,  complex  and  compound  fractions,  reduction  in 
denominate  numbers,  tables  of  folding  paper,  surveyor's  measure,  foreign 
money,  compound  numbers,  longitude  and  time,  compound  interest,  annual 
interest,,  exchange,  true  discount,  partnership  with  time,  ratio,  mensuration 
involving  trapezoids,  trapeziums,  polygons,  frustrums,  spheres,  cube  roots, 
or  the  metric  system. 

STUDY  NO.  9.  Mitchell,  H.  Edwin.  "Some  social  demands  on  th< 
course  of  study  in  arithmetic."  Seventeenth  Yearbook  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I.  Bloomington,  111.,  Public 
School  Pub.  Co,  1918.    pp.  7-17. 

Problem.  To  determine  the  relative  importance  of  the  various  content 
elements  of  the  course  of  study  in  arithmetic  through  ascertaining  the 
frequency  of  their  occurrence  and  the  manner  of  their  use. 

Method.  Study  based  upon  the  arithmetic  appearing  in  a  standard  cook 
book,  in  the  payrolls  of  a  number  of  artificial  flower  and  feather  factories, 
in  marked-down  sales  advertisements,  and  in  a  general  hardware  catalogue. 

Findings. 

Study       I — From  the  cook  book  : 

( 1 )  The  numbers  occurring  were  very  small  regardless  of 
whether  they  were  integers  or  mixed  numbers. 

(2)  The  most  commonly  occurring  fractions  had  denomi- 
nators of  2,  3,  4,  and  8. 

Study     II — From  the  factory  payrolls:  .  . 

(1)  The  word  "dozen"- and  fractional  parts  of  twelve  were 
used  very  much.  The  commodities  were  made  and  sold 
by  the  dozen. 

(2)  To  compute  earnings  the  arithmetical  processes  in- 
volved: addition  of  all  possible  fractions  with  12  as  a 
dozens ;  of  decimals  in  terms  of  dollars  and  cents ; 
cation  by  a  fractional,  integral,  or  mixed  number  of 
denominator  to  integers  and  mixed  numbers;  multipli- 
addition  of  United  States  money. 


The  Third  Yearbook  49 


(3)   The    fractions    emphasized    were    twelfths,    fourths, 
thirds,  and  sixths. 
Study  III — From  marked-down  sales  advertisements: 

(1)  Discount  notes  with  the  exception  of  halves  and  thirds 
were  expressed  in  percentages. 

(2)  The  most  common  practices  were  to  use  10  per  cent, 
20  per  cent,  25  per  cent,  one  third,  and  one  half  off. 

Study    IV — From  the  general  hardware  catalogue: 

(1)  Many  articles  were  sold  by  the  dozen,  thus  necessitat- 
ing ability  to  calculate  using  fractions  and  mixed  num- 
bers involving  12  as  the  denominator  of  the  fraction. 

(2)  Fractions  with  denominators  of  16,  32,  and  64  were 
used.  Many  of  these  fractions  were  merely  descriptive, 
although  the  dealer  had  to  read  and  understand  them. 

(3)  Quantities  tabulated  under  avoirdupois  weight  were 
descriptive  of  the  weights  of  articles,  but  addition  of 
weights  was  necessary  in  determining  freight  rates. 

(4)  The  terms  used  frequently  were:  inches,  feet,  yards, 
ounces,  pounds,  dozen,  gross,  quarts. 

(5)  The  units  often  used  in  selling  were:  per  each  article, 
per  dozen,  per  gross,  per  hundred,  per  pound,  per  foot, 
per  hundred  feet,  per  square  foot,  per  hundred  square 
feet. 

STUDY  NO.  io.  Wise,  Carl  T.  "Survey  of  arithmetical  problems 
arising  in  various  occupations."  Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  20. 
October,  1919.    pp.  118-136. 

Problem.  To  test  over  a  more  varied  area,  the  Wilson  Survey  method 
of  determining  the  social  needs  for  the  arithmetical  processes. 

Method.  The  problems  of  adults,  7345  in  number,  were  gathered  from 
the  States  of  Texas,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  California,  and  Missouri. 
The  classification  used  showed  the  processes  and  their  difficulty. 

Findings.  1.  Differences  in  the  classifications  of  problems  from  the  city 
and  rural  districts  and  also  differences  in  the  classifications  of  problems  from 
different  parts  of  the  country  were  negligible. 

2.  Eighty-five  per  cent  of  all  problems  classified  involved  only  the  four 
fundamental  operations,  or  combination  of  fundamental  operations. 

3.  The  fractions  commonly  used  were  1/2,  1/3,  2/3,  1/4,  3/4,  1/5,  and 
1/8.    These  constituted  93.9  per  cent  of  all  fractions  which  occurred. 

4.  Problems  involving  common  weights  and  measures  occurred  very 
frequently. 

5.  There  were  very  few  problems  in  compound  interest,  compound 
proportion,  insurance,  plastering,  painting,  masonry,  and  bank  discount. 


50  Department  of  Superintendence 

6.  No  problems  were  received  involving  taxes,  investments,  stocks  and 
bonds,  equation  of  payments,  foreign  exchange,  apothecaries'  weight,  alliga- 
tion, annual  interest,  compound  and  complex  fractions,  folding  paper,  troy 
weight,  or  the  metric  system. 

STUDY  NO.  ii.  Noon, -Philo.G.  "The  child's  use  of  numbers." 
Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Volume  10,  November,  1919.  pp. 
462-467. 

Problem.  1.  What  arithmetical  knowledge  and  power  should  be  ac- 
quired by  a  child  at  the  end  of  Grade  VI. 

2.  What  should  be  the  content  of  the  arithmetic  course  in  Grades  IV, 
V,  and  VI  ? 

Method.  The  author  went  to  12  classes  of  Grades  IV,  V,  and  VI,  and 
two  immature  classes  of  Grade  VII  in  a  choice  residential  section  of  Boston 
and  asked  the  children  to  tell  what  numbers  they  make  use  of  or  notice 
outside  of  school.  Items  reported  were  accredited  to  the  lowest  grade 
mentioned. 

Summary: 

A.  Games:  (1)  Calling  or  reading  numbers :  (a)  Football  signals;  (b) 
spots  on  dice;  (c)  spots  on  dominoes;  (d)  number  on  sled  to  indicate  size; 
(2)  Counting  marbles,  children  in  games,  tops,  stripes,  etc. 

B.  Going  to  store:  (1)  Knowledge  of  quantity  (pound),  (2)  number 
of  articles,  (3)  finding  cost,  and  (4)  counting  change. 

C.  Other  instances  of  reading  numbers:  (1)  Telephone  numbers,  (2) 
automobile  numbers,  (3)  policeman  numbers,  (4)  numbers  on  fire  engine, 
(5)  numbers  on  police  engine,  (6)  dates  on  almanac. 

D.  Other  instances  of  counting:  (1)  Money  belonging  to  child,  (2) 
postage  stamps,   (3)  steps  in  dancing,   (4)  number  of  Christmas  presents. 

Conclusion.  Reading  of  numbers  and  counting  include  nearly  every 
item  recorded  above.  Below  Grade  VII  there  is  no  felt  need  for  problems 
in  arithmetic.  These  emphasize  mechanical  work  up  to  the  sixth  grade. 
Then  is  the  time  for  applied  arithmetic.  Before  Grade  VI,  emphasize  the 
four  processes  (addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  division),  common 
fractions,  and  decimals. 

STUDY  NO.  12.  Woody,  Clifford.  "Types  of  arithmetic  needed  in 
certain  types  of  salesmanship."  Elementary  School  Journal,  Volume  22, 
No.  7,  March,  1922.    pp.  505-521. 

Problem.  The  investigation  was  undertaken  to  gain  a  reliable  index  of 
arithmetic  needed  by  the  clerk  in  selling  goods  and  by  the  consuming  public 
in  purchasing  goods. 

Method.  The  study  consists  of  an  analysis  of  4661  bills  of  sale,  represent- 
ing a  total  value  of  $41,560.67  obtained  from  three  large  stores  in  Seattle, 
a  wholesale  and  retail  hardware,  a  wholesale  and  retail  grocery,  and  a 


The  Third  Yearbook  51 

large  department  store.  In  this  study  a  problem  was  defined  as  any  situa- 
tion demanding  calculation.  Oftentimes  one  situation  demanding  more 
than  one  set  of  calculations  was  listed  as  more  than  one  problem.  As  the 
author  collected  data,  he  interviewed  managers  concerning  needs  for 
arithmetic  and  concerning  the  arithmetic  used. 

Findings.  1.  Nine  hundred  forty-five  of  the  4661  bills  of  sale  required 
no  computation  other  than  in  the  payment  of  bills.  (This  was  true  with 
regard  to  the  vast  majority  of  the  business  conducted  in  one  of  the  firms, 
as  bills  of  sale  were  made  only  in  case  the  purchases  were  to  be  delivered.) 

2.  There  was  no  use  of  decimals  save  in  connection  with  United  States 
money.  This  was  to  be  expected  since  calculations  involved  only  buying 
and  selling. 

3.  Of  the  problems  in  addition  encountered  none  had  more  than  five 
places  in  any  addend,  and  few  had  more  than  six  addends.  The  most  com- 
mon type  of  problem  in  addition  consisted  of  adding  two  three-place 
numbers. 

4.  Few  problems  in  subtraction,  other  than  making  change,  were  en- 
countered. In  the  grocery  only  one  of  the  206  bills  of  sale  involved  any 
subtraction,  other  than  making  change.  When  subtraction  was  involved, 
usually  the  problems  had  but  three  or  four  numbers  in  the  minuend. 

5.  In  multiplication,  the  vast  majority  of  the  problems  had  but  two  or 
three-place  numbers  in  the  multiplicand  and  one  or  two-place  numbers  in 
the  multiplier. 

6.  By  far,  the  most  common  problems  in  division  had  two  or  three-place 
numbers  in  either  the  dividend  or  the  divisor.  Division  as  a  process  was 
used  less  than  addition  or  multiplication. 

7.  The  most  commonly  used  fractions  had  denominators  of  2,  4,  6,  and 
12,  although  3,  5,  9,  10,  16,  24,  and  144  were  used  to  some  extent.  The 
most  common  unit  of  sale  determined  very  largely  the  fractions  used. 
Dozen  or  gross  were  often  employed  and  thus  the  fractions  with  denomi- 
nators of  12  and  144  were  used.  Such  fractions  were  rarely  reduced  to 
lowest  terms.  There  was  much  multiplication  of  a  two,  three  or  four- 
place  number  by  a  simple  fraction,  or  by  a  mixed  number  having  one,  two, 
or  three  places  and  a  fraction.  There  was  little  use  of  addition,  subtraction 
and  division  of  fractions. 

8.  Denominate  numbers  were  encountered  as  units  of  sale,  but  no  reduc- 
tion into  larger  or  smaller  units  took  place. 

9.  Discount  was  widely  used,  especially  in  the  hardware  store.  The 
most  common  rates  of  discount  were  5,  10,  20,  25,  30,  35,  40,  and  50  per 
cent.  Inquiry  revealed  that  discount  tables  were  used  and  that  little  calcula- 
tion was  employed. 

10.  Interviews  with  the  managers  of  these  stores  to  supplement  the 
analysis  of  the  bills  of  sale  revealed  the  following  significant  points:  (a) 
The  goods  were  marked  in  terms  of  the  decimal  system  to  make  calculations 
easy;  (b)  Goods  were  sold  by  convenient  units  or  groups  of  units,  and  were 
not  usually  sold  by  using  a  simple  unit  or  a  multiple  of  the  total  cost  of  a 


52  Department  of  Superintendence 

large  amount  of  goods;  (c)  Measuring  devices,  weighing  devices,  calcu- 
lating machines,  calculating  devices,  such  as  discount  books,  price  tables, 
cash  registers,  central  cashiers,  etc.,  have  reduced  the  amount  of  arithmetic 
used  by  clerks  to  a  minimum.  Oftentimes  the  manipulating  of  a  mechani- 
cal device  and  reading  numbers  was  all  the  arithmetic  needed  by  the  clerks 
in  selling  goods.  If  there  was  no  central  cashier,  in  addition  to  the  ability 
to  read  numbers,  the  clerks  had  to  be  able  to  make  change. 

11.  While  the  evidence  indicated  that  the  clerks  under  consideration 
made  little  use  of  arithmetic,  the  author  argued  that  the  consuming  public 
needed  arithmetic  for  its  own  satisfaction  in  checking  the  accuracy  with 
which  the  calculating  and  measuring  devices  were  manipulated.  He  argued 
for  much  emphasis  on  mental  arithmetic — that  is,  calculating  without  pencil 
or  paper,  and  for  much  emphasis  on  quickly  estimating  or  approximating  a 
correct  answer  to  the  problem  involved. 

STUDY  NO.  13.  Woody,  Clifford.  Results  obtained  from  giving  the 
Courtis  arithmetic  test  to  members  of  the  Rotary  and  Kiwanis  Clubs. 
Unpublished  study  on  file  in  the  office  of  the  Bureau  of  Educational  Refer- 
ence and  Research,  University  of  Michigan. 

Problem.  To  determine  the  level  of  efficiency  in  addition  and  multiplica- 
tion existing  in  highly  selected  groups  of  our  adult  society  and  to  make 
comparison  with  the  level  of  efficiency  attained  by  the  children  in  Grade 
VIII. 

Method.  The  addition  and  multiplication  tests  of  the  Courtis  Research 
Tests  in  Arithmetic,  Series  B,  were  given  to  203  adults  belonging  to  Rotary 
and  Kiwanis  Clubs  in  seven  different  cities  of  Michigan.  The  results 
achieved  were  compared  with  the  Courtis  Standards  of  Achievement  for 
the  children  of  Grade  VIII. 

Findings.  1.  In  general,  the  members  of  the  Rotary  and  Kiwanis  Clubs 
attempted  more  exercises  than  the  children  in  Grade  VIII.  The  median 
number  of  problems  attempted  by  the  members  of  the  clubs  was  19.5  in 
addition  and  13.7  in  multiplication;  the  general  standard  of  achievement 
for  the  children  in  Grade  VIII  is  11.6  in  addition,  and  10.2  in  multiplica- 
tion. 

2.  There  was  much  variation  in  the  median  number  of  exercises  attempted 
by  the  various  clubs.  In  addition,  the  median  scores  ranged  from  13.0  to 
24.1  exercises  attempted;  in  multiplication,  from  8  to  16.5  exercises 
attempted. 

3.  In  general,  the  members  of  the  Rotary  and  Kiwanis  Clubs  were  more 
accurate  in  addition  and  less  accurate  in  multiplication  than  the  children 
in  Grade  VIII  as  indicated  by  the  Courtis  general  standards.  The  median 
percentage  of  accuracy  for  the  203  members  in.  addition  was  82  per  cent  cor- 
rect; in  multiplication,  71  per  cent  correct.  The  corresponding  figures  for 
the  general  standards  of  the  Courtis  Tests  in  Grade  VIII  are  76  and  81  per 
cent,  respectively.    The  variation  of  the  median  percentages  of  accuracy  in 


The  Third  Yearbook  53 

addition  among  the  different  clubs  was  from  71  per  cent  to  86.5  per  cent 
correct;  in  multiplication,  from  64.6  per  cent  to  79.6  per  cent  correct.  It 
is  interesting  that  the  median  percentage  of  accuracy  in  multiplication  in 
each  club  was  less  than  the  general  standard  for  Grade  VIII. 

4.  In  general,  the  median  percentage  of  accuracy  in  the  clubs  was  higher 
in  addition  and  lower  in  multiplication  than  in  Grade  VIII. 

Note.  This  study  suggests  that  the  level  of  efficiency  existing  in  these 
processes  is  largely  conditioned  by  the  social  demands  made  upon  the  differ- 
ent individuals.  Although  the  different  investigations  indicate  that  multipli- 
cation as  a  process  is  used  in  business  and  social  life  more  than  addition,  it 
is  ventured  that  the  problems  in  addition  in  the  Courtis  Tests  approximate 
the  type  of  problems  solved  in  business  and  social  life  more  closely  than  the 
problems  in  multiplication  do.  Furthermore,  much  practice  in  addition  is 
gained  in  exercises  in  which  the  predominant  process  is  multiplication.  Thus 
it  seems  safe  to  suggest  that  the  club  members  achieved  relatively  higher 
scores  in  addition  than  in  multiplication  because  relatively  greater  practice 
of  the  type  measured  by  the  test  in  addition  is  encountered  in  the  routine 
of  everyday  business  life. 

STUDY  NO.  14.  Woody,  Clifford.  The  use  of  calculating  and  meas- 
uring devices  in  business  and  their  influence  on  the  use  of  arithmetic.  Un- 
published study  made  in  cooperation  with  Leander  Beach,  1923.  On  file 
in  the  office  of  the  Bureau  ofi  Educational  Reference  and  Research,  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan. 

Problem.  To  find  out  to  what  extent  calculating  and  measuring  devices 
were  used  in  business  houses  and  to  determine  something  of  the  nature  of 
arithmetic  utilized  in  carrying  on  business  transactions. 

Method.  The  managers  of  40  business  houses  in  Ann  Arbor  were  per- 
sonally interviewed  concerning  the  use  of  mechanical  devices,  short-cut 
methods,  and  the  nature  of  arithmetic  utilized  by  salesmen  and  consumers. 
This  list  of  business  houses  included :  three  banks,  five  drug  stores,  six 
grocery  stores,  four  drygoods  stores,  three  bakeries  and  restaurants,  two 
hardware  stores,  two  shoe  stores,  three  men's  clothing  stores,  two  book 
stores,  one  electric  shop,  one  wall-paper  and  paint  store,  one  jewelry  store, 
one  office  outfitting  store,  one  five-and-ten  cent  store,  one  news  company,  one 
tea  and  coffee  house,  one  meat  market,  one  candy  store,  and  one  phonograph 
store.  The  same  questions  were  asked  each  firm  in  accordance  with  a 
specially  prepared  questionnaire. 

Findings.  1.  Each  of  the  business  houses  made  much  use  of  mechanical 
calculating  devices.  Each  firm  had  at  least  one  cash  register,  and  some  had 
as  many  as  10.  Almost  all  firms  had  at  least  one  adding  machine,  and  the 
banks  had  from  six  to  eight  machines.  The  banks  used  bookkeeping 
machines.  Computing  scales  were  used  in  all  grocery  stores,  all  meat 
markets,  all  drug  stores,  and  in  all  candy  shops.  In  one  grocery  store  two 
cheese  cutters  were  operated  on  the  computing  plan. 


54  Department  of  Superintendence 

2.  Many  tabular  devices  were  utilized  in  order  to  reduce  the  amount  of 
tabulation.  The  banks  used  bond  and  interest  tables.  The  news  company 
used  a  "price"  table  to  tell  the  price  of  the  different  magazines  or  combina- 
tions of  magazines.  The  drug  stores  used  "percentage  solution"  tables 
whereby  it  was  possible  to  find  the  different  amounts  of  a  chemical  to  make 
a  solution  of  a  particular  strength.  The  hardware  had  "screen"  tables  for 
finding  the  areas  of  screens  of  different  lengths  and  widths,  and  discount 
tables  for  determining  the  cost  price  from  the  list  price  in  wholesale  cata- 
logues. The  book  stores  used  a  "printer's"  table  for  determining  the  num- 
ber of  sheets  per  pound  according  to  the  quality.  In  fact,  almost  every  firm 
used  tabular  devices  of  some  kind. 

3.  Several  "short-cut"  methods  were  discovered.  In  computing  interest 
at. six  per  cent  when  the  interest  book  is  not  used,  point  off  two  places  in 
the  principal  and  multiply  by  half  the  number  of  months.  In  figuring  the 
selling  price  on  an  article  when  there  is  a  discount,  the  method  is  to  subtract 
.the  discount  from  100,  point  off  two  places  in  the  remainder  and  multiply 
.by  the  original  price.     A  system  of  alligations  was  used  by  the  druggists. 

4.  The  goods  were  always  marked  to  avoid  complicated  calculations. 
Firms. are  now.  avoiding  marking  in  fractions  and  employ  the  unit  of  decimal 
system  to  a  great  extent.  They  also  avoid  the  sliding  scales  and  sell  at  so 
much  ..per  unit  or  multiple  of  this  unit,  or  group  of  units.  An  illustration 
of  the  unit  or  group  of  units  plan  is:  selling  six  bars  of  soap  for  25  cents 
but  charging  35  cents  for  eight  bars. 

,5.  Many,  of  the  managers  insisted  that  neither  their  employees  nor  the 
purchasers  did  much  actual  calculation.  In  certain  stores  like  restaurants, 
and  ice  cream  stores  where  articles  were  sold  in  combinations  the  clerks 
learned  the  sale, price  for  the  combination  of  articles:  for  example,  they 
learned  the  regular  price  for  a  sandwich,  coffee,  and  a  piece  of  pie  was  45 
cents  and  did  not  have  to  add  the  price  of  the  different  items  to  get  the 
total.  The. managers  estimated  that  only  about  29  per  cent  of  the  buyers 
ever  add  the  cost  of  different  articles  purchased  to  find  the  total  amount 
purchased,  and  that  only  about  66.6  per  cent  of  their  customers  ever  check 
the  change  given  them. 

'  6.  These  business  men  insisted  that  the  school  needs  to  emphasize  the 
foUr  fundamentals.  They  felt  there  is  great  need  for  "mental"  arithmetic. 
Some  emphasized  the  need  for  training  involving  interest,  discount,  and  the 
metric  system.  The  particular  needs  emphasized  by  the  business  men  de- 
pended largely  on  their  type  of  business. 

7.  The  business  men  agreed  that  the  greatest  number  of  mistakes  made 
in  the  buyer's  calculations  involve  making  change.  The  buyer  does  not 
understand  the  "make-change"  method  and  gets  lost. 

8.  The  outstanding  conclusion  drawn  from  this  investigation  is  that 
little  calculation  in  arithmetic  was  actually  done. 


The  Third  Yearbook  55 


STUDY  NO.  15.  Charters,  W.  W.  Department  store  arithmetic. 
Study  reported  in  Charter's  Curriculum  Construction.  New  York,  Mac- 
millan,  1923.    pp.  231-236. 

Problem.  To  determine  what  operations  in  arithmetic  are  important 
for  salespeople. 

Method.  Study  consisted  of  analyzing  the  arithmetic  involved  in  the. 
use  of  several  thousand  sales  checks.  In  addition,  multiplication  and  divi- 
sion 7337  charge  checks'  were  examined ;  in  subtraction  4304  cash  checks 
were  analyzed.  The  analyses  consisted  of  detailed  accounts  of  the  number 
of  addends,  the  number  of  figures  in  the  addends,  the  number  of  figures  in 
the  minuend  when  subtraction  was  involved,  the  number  of  times  a  par- 
ticular amount  of  money  was  offered  in  payment  for  a  bill  of  goods,  the 
number  of  places  in  the  multiplicand  and  multiplier  when  multiplication 
was  involved,  the  number  of  places  in  the  dividend  and  divisor  when  divi- 
sion was  involved,  the  size  of  the  fractions  encountered,  etc. 

Findings.  The  reader  is  referred  to  Charter's  book  for  a  detailed  sum- 
mary, but  the  main  points  are  set  forth  in  the  paragraph  quoted:  "In  this 
one  vocation  of  department-store  selling  the  chances  are  nine  out  of  ten 
that  no  problem  in  addition  will  be  more  complicated  than  the  addition  of 
four-place  addends ;  no  subtraction  is  used  in  making  change,  and  if  it  were, 
only  forty-five  out  of  one  hundred  subtraction  facts  would  be  used ;,  the 
chances  are  ninety-seven  out  of  one  hundred  that  in  multiplication  the 
multiplier  will  be  12  or  less  and  the  multiplicand  three  places  or  less;  in 
fractions,  only  eleven  denominators  are  found,  all  being  under  10  except  10', 
12,  and  16,  and  by  a  simple  device  of  using  the  thumb  decimals  disappear." 

STUDY  NO.  16.  Moore,  Ernest  C.  Minimum  course  of,,  study. 
Chapter  I.  Arithmetic,     pp.  1-41,  1923. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  chapter,  three  studies  for  the  purpose  of  ascertain- 
ing the  minimum  essentials  of  arithmetic  were  reported.  \ 

Study  I.  Problem.  To  find  out  how  much  arithmetic  is  used  in  everyday 
life. 

Method.  A  questionnaire  was  sent  to  men  of  various  vocations  asking 
them  certain  questions  concerning  their  use  of  arithmetic.  '  Typical  ques- 
tions folloAv:  Do  you  personally  have  occasion  to  add  columns  of  2,  3,  4,  5,v 
6,  or  more  figures  in  width  ?  Do  you  personally  have  occasion  to  compute 
simple  interest,  etc. 

Findings.  From  the  799  replies  to  the  questionnaire,  it  was  evident  that 
the  minimum  essentials  should  include  :  ( 1 )  Addition — five  addends,  five 
figures  in  width;  (2)  multiplication — the  multiplicand,  five  figures  in 
width,  the  multiplier,  four  figures  in  width;  (3)  division — the  dividend, 
five  figures  in  width,  the  devisor,  four  figures  in  width ;  (4)  fractions — 
halves,  thirds,  fourths,  fifths,  eighths,  with  tenths;  (5)  decimals  of  three 
places;  (6)  simple  interest;  and  (7)  percentage. 


56  DEPARTMENT   OF   SUPERINTENDENCE 

Study  II.  Problem.  To  find  the  amount  of  arithmetic  used  in  everyday 
life  with  regard  to  subject-matter. 

Method.  A  second  questionnaire,  listing  various  topics  in  arithmetic, 
such  as  addition  of  fractions,  subtraction  of  fractions,  simple  cash  accounts, 
drawing  to  scale,  etc.,  was  sent  to  the  persons  mentioned  above  with  the 
request  that  they  relate  to  the  children  in  the  home  all  the  uses  made  of 
arithmetic  each  day  for  ten  consecutive  days  and  have  the  children  record 
such  uses  by  placing  an  X  on  the  question  blank  after  the  enumerated  topic. 

Findings.  On  the  basis  of  the  314  replies  to  this  questionnaire,  it  was 
concluded  that  the  following  should  be  included  in  the  list  of  minimum 
essentials:  (1)  Simple  cash  accounts,  or  family  expense  accounts;  (2)  cash, 
checks,  or  bills;  (3)  addition  of  fractions;  (4)  multiplication  of  fractions; 
(5)  subtraction  of  fractions;  (6)  banking;  and   (7)   division  of  fractions. 

Study  III.  Problem.  To  find  out  the  amount  of  arithmetic  needed  by 
the  employees  in  fifty  business  firms  of  Los  Angeles. 

Method.  The  following  questionnaire  was  sent  to  fifty  leading  busi- 
ness firms  in  that  city:  (1)  How  much  arithmetic  should  young  people 
know  when  they  enter  your  employment?  (2)  In  what  arithmetic  work 
do  you  find  them  weak  or  unsatisfactory?  (3)  What  suggestions  do  you 
make  that  may  assist  in  correcting  mistakes?  (4)  So  far  as  it  comes  to 
your  attention,  what  work  in  arithmetic  is  being  taught  that  is  of  little  or 
no  value  in  your  business? 

Findings.  From  the  24  replies  received,  the  following  answers  were 
obtained:  (1)  The  arithmetic  needed  on  entering  the  firms  should  include 
addition,  multiplication,  division,  decimals,  subtraction,  percentage,  and 
fractions;  (2)  The  weaknesses  manifested  were  in  accuracy  (mentioned  by 
18  of  the  24  replying),  decimals,  addition,  multiplication,  fractions;  (3) 
The  suggestions  made  for  correcting  the  mistakes  were :  accuracy,  short- 
cuts, mental  arithmetic,  and  "teach  the  why";  and  (4)  In  response  to  what 
should  be  eliminated,  the  replies  were:  no  topics,  higher  mathematics, 
algebra,  all  except  the  four  fundamentals,  decimals,  interest,  and  discount. 

Although  the  above  questionnaires  are  suggestive,  the  nature  of  some  of 
the  answers  given  suggest  that  they  should  not  be  taken  too  seriously,  for 
they  do  not  smack  of  serious  thought.  It  may  be  noted  that  Study  II, 
based  upon  actual  usage  instead  of  opinion,  shows  a  much  simpler  demand. 
Tabulation  of  usage  is  now  conceded  to  be  the  most  effective  procedure  in 
checking  needs. 

STUDY  NO.  17.  Hansen,  Einar  A.  The  arithmetic  of  salespersons' 
tally  cards.  1924.  Unpublished  study,  Department  of  Education,  Univ. 
of  Iowa. 

Problem.  To  determine  what  additions  salespersons  use  in  totaling  their 
daily  sales:  1.  How  many  of  the  cards  have  but  one  sale  listed;  how  many 
two,  three,  etc. 

2.  How  many  sales  are  totaled  in  each  column  of  sales  on  the  cards? 


The  Third  Yearbook  57 

3.  What  is  the  size  of  the  final  sum  as  measured  in  terms  of  the  number 
of  digits  involved? 

4.  How  many  columns  of  sales  are  added  by  the  salesperson? 

Method.  1324  tally  cards,  the  cards  on  which  sales  are  entered  for  pur- 
poses of  record,  from  four  large  downtown  stores,  a  bookstore,  a  music 
store,  a  department  store,  and  one  selling  athletic  goods,  besides  one  fairly 
large  drygoods  store  on  the  west  side  of  the  city,  were  used.  The  frequencies 
of  occurrence  of  the  four  characteristics  listed  above  were  tabulated.  The 
findings  are  recorded  in  tabular  and  graphic  form. 

Findings.  1.  Twelve  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  cards  fall  in  the 
group  having  one  or  two  sales.  The  curve  falls  rather  regularly  from  this 
point  to  two  and  one  per  cent  toward  the  latter  end,  where  it  rises  again  to 
six  per  cent  for  those  having  fifty  or  more  sales. 

2.  The  number  of  sales  totaled  in  the  various  columns  was  determined 
partially  by  the  type  of  card  used,  depending  upon  whether  the  fifty  possible 
items  were  arranged  in  four,  three,  or  two  columns.  Thirteen-item  columns 
ranked  first  with  fifteen  per  cent,  12  and  2 — item  columns  second,  with 
eleven  per  cent  each.  The  preponderance  of  2-item  columns  was  due  in 
part  to  the  number  of  additions  of  sub-totals  into  final  totals. 

3.  The  number  of  digits  involved  in  the  final  totals  ran  in  the  following 
order:  four  digits,  73  per  cent;  three  digits,  17  per  cent;  five  digits,  10  per 
cent.     Single  entry  cards  were  excluded  from  this  tabulation. 

4.  The  number  of  columns  added  varied  first,  with  the  type  of  card 
used ;  second,  in  actual  count,  the  one  column  leading  with  44  per  cent ; 
two  columns  having  27  per  cent,  three  columns  10  per  cent,  and  four 
columns  9  per  cent. 

With  the  exception  of  the  tally  cards  from  the  bookstore,  the  sales  con- 
sidered are  the  records  of  cash  sales  only  and  therefore  do  not  represent  all 
the  sales  made  by  these  salespersons  for  a  single  day. 

2.  General  informational  or  reading  uses  of  arithmetic- — The  arithmetic 
needed  by  any  individual  for  actual  computation  is  obviously  limited,  and 
actual  computational  practice  is  being  further  curtailed  by  the  rapid  intro- 
duction of  calculating  machines.  But  the  same  limitations  do  not  apply  to 
number  concepts  in  general  and  the  ability  to  interpret  the  number  concepts 
met  with  in  general  reading.  The  suggestion  naturally  follows  that  in 
many  phases  of  arithmetic,  manipulation  should  be  omitted  and  the  time 
devoted  to  informational  concepts  and  the  general  understanding  of  busi- 
ness situations.  In  time,  we  may  have  some  phases  of  arithmetic  dealt  with 
in  an  arithmetic  reader  with  little  or  no  figuring  required. 

STUDY  NO.  18.  Camerer,  Alice.  "What  should  be  the  minimum  in- 
formation about  banking?"  17th  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the 
Study  of  Education,  Part  I.  Bloomington,  111.,  Public  School  Pub.  Co., 
1919.    pp.  18-26. 

Problem.  To  discover  what  should  be  taught  concerning  banking. 


58  Department  of  Superintendence 

Method.  An  analysis  was  made  of  35  replies  to  a  questionnaire  sent  to 
bank  employees  in  the  states  of  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kentucky,  Missouri, 
Nebraska,  North  Dakota,  Oregon,  and  Texas,  relative  to  the  facts  in  bank- 
ing that  all  people  in  a  community  should  know.  A  similar  analysis  was 
made  of  the  replies  sent  in  by  parents  of  the  pupils  in  the  elementary  school 
of  the  University  of  Iowa.  The  instructions  were  to  mark  important  items 
"XX",  less  important  items  "X",  and  to  cross  out  those  of  no  importance. 
The  items  reported  in  the  replies  were  arranged  according  to  their  im- 
portance as  determined  by  the  bank  employers  and  comparison  made  with 
their  importance  as  determined  by  the  parents.  The  results  are  reported 
under  the  findings. 

Findings.  The  bank  employees  determined  the  following  rankings  on 
twenty  of  the  fifty-five  items,  the  most  important  being  placed  first : 
(1)  How  to  write  a  check,  (2)  how  and  why  to  fill  out  a  stub,  (3)  when 
a  check  should  be  cashed,  (4)  how  to  stop  payment  on  a  check,  (5)  how 
to  sign  your  name  when  indorsing  a  check,  (6)  what  to  do  if  a  check  is 
lost,  (7)  how  to  indorse  a  note,  (8)  how  to  write  a  negotiable  note, 
(9)  how  to  indorse  a  check  in  full,  (10)  how  to  use  a  bank  book,  (11) 
how  to  make  a  deposit  slip,  (12)  how  to  find  interest,  (13)  importance 
and  purpose  of  savings  banks,  (14)  importance  and  purpose  of  commercial 
deposit  banks,  (15)  how  to  use  a  promissory  note,  (16)  responsibility  of 
maker  if  note  is  lost,  (17)  certified  checks,  (18)  how  to  open  an  account, 
(19)  when  notes  are  void,  and  (20)  legal  rate  of  interest. 

Parents  of  the  children  in  the  elementary  school  placed  15  of  the  20 
items  named  above  in  their  list  of  the  20  most  important  items,  although 
the  order  selected  was  not  quite  the  same. 

STUDY  NO.  19.  William,  L.  W.  "The  mathematics  needed  in 
freshman  chemistry."  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  Volume  21, 
No.  7.  October,  1921.  (Reported  in  Charter's  Curriculum  Construc- 
tion.) 

Problem.  To  determine  what  mathematics  is  necessary  to  carry  suc- 
cessfully a  course  in  freshman  chemistry  in  which  the  textbook  was  Noyes, 
A  Textbook  in  Chemistry. 

Method.  Study  consisted  of  analyzing  both  the  expository  body  and 
the  problems  of.  the  text,  and  recording  all  words  or  expressions  which 
were  distinctly  mathematical  or  implied  mathematics  and  the  nature  of 
the  different  operations  involved.  All  exercises  were  worked  out  by  the 
simplest  methods,  and  both '  the  operations  and  the  quantities  were  tab- 
ulated.' 

Findings.  See  the  original  article  or  the  account  in  Charter's  Curric- 
ulum Construction  for  detailed  summary.  1.  In  the  body  of  the  text,  124 
mathematical  concepts  were  used  1156  times,  of  which  per  cent  and  volume 
comprised  nearly  one  half. 


The  Third  Yearbook  59 


2.  Seventy-three  different  denominate  numbers  were  used,"  the  most 
common  of  which  wrere :  degree,  gross,  and  liter. 

3.  Fifty-five  different  fractions  were  used,  but  the  denominators  in  all 
but  43  of  the  fractions  were  less  than  10.  Of  these  43  denominators,  eight 
denominators  were  less  than  100,  but  24  ended  in  hundreds  or  thousands. 

4.  Complicated  decimals  were  very  frequent.  The  one-place,  two-place, 
and  three-place  were  most  frequent,  but  one  decimal  had  eight  places. 
There  were  usually  two  integers  and  one  or  two  places,  but  at  times  the 
decimals  were  more  complicated.  Oftentimes  decimals  were  mixed  with 
fractions. 

5.  Chemical  equations  occurred  very  often.  There  were  nine  cases  of 
substitution  in  formulas  and  seventy-seven  cases  of  ratio  and  proportion. 

6.  The  arithmetic  at  times  was  complicated.  In  addition  there  were 
problems  consisting  of  adding  an  integer  and  three  decimals,  two  integers 
and  three  decimals,  and  three  decimals.  In  subtraction  the  most  difficult 
problem  was  taking  a  six-place  decimal  from  another.  In  multiplication 
at  times  it  was  necessary  to  multiply  a  four-place  number  by  a  six-place 
number.  Mixed  decimals  had  to  be  multiplied  together.  Complicated 
decimals  at  times  had  to  be  divided  by  one  another.  Thus  the  arithmetic 
needed  in  chemistry  was  complicated,  but  the  algebra  simple. 

STUDY  NO.  20.  Gallaway,  Mrs.  T.  T.  Mathematics  needed  in  a 
freshman  course  in  clothing.  Unpublished  study  reported  in  .  Charter's 
Curriculum  Construction,     pp.  241-43,   1923. 

Problem.  To  determine  what  mathematics  is  necessary  to  carry  success- 
fully a  freshman  college  course  in  clothing  in  which  the  text  used  is  Baldt's 
Clothes  for  Women. 

Method.  Study  consisted  of  analyzing  both  the  expository  body  and 
the  problem  of  the  text,  and  recording  all  words  or  expressions  which  were 
distinctly  mathematical  or  which  implied  mathematics,  and  listing  the 
nature  of  the  different  operations  involved.  All  of  the  .  exercises  were 
worked  out  by  the  simplest  methods,  and  both  the  operations  and  the 
quantities  were  tabulated. 

Findings.  See  the  account  in  Charter's,  Curriculum  Construction  for  a 
detailed  summary. 

1.  It  is  necessary  to  understand  111  mathematical  concepts  correctly  to 
read  this  text  intelligently.  Of  these,  43  were  geometrical  terms,  chiefly 
included  in  mensuration.  All  other  terms  were  arithmetical.  Chief  among 
these  terms  were:  line,  equal,  center,  measure,  width,  length,  and  point. 

2.  Denominate  numbers  such  as  appear  in  the  ordinary  arithmetic  oc- 
curred and  in  addition,  the  two  units  of  measure  head  and  skein.  The 
most  common  units  of  measure  were :  inch,  dollar,  yard,  head,  and  year. 


60  Department  of  Superintendence 


3.  The  most  common  fractions  used  were:  halves,  quarters,  sixths, 
eighths,  tenths,  twelfths,  and  sixteenths.  There  were  a  few  cases  of  decimal 
fractions. 

4.  The  integers  occurring  were  mostly  one-place  integers  if  expressed 
in  words  instead  of  figures.  If  the  integers  were  expressed  in  figures,  the 
majority  of  them  had  less  than  four  figures  and  none  of  them  had  as  many 
as  five  figures. 

5.  Roman  numerals  were  used  considerably,  although  none  of  them  had 
more  than  two  places. 

6.  In  the  chapters  on  drafting  and  the  use  of  patterns  much  use  was 
made  of  algebraic  equations:  for  example,  "A.  E.  equals  one-sixth  neck 
measure  plus  three-eighths  inch."  The  solution  of  similar  problems  in- 
volved: (a)  Translating  the  algebraic  equation  expressed  in  words  into  a 
symbolic  numerical  equation,  (b)  multiplying  a  whole  or  mixed  number 
by  a  fraction,  (c)  subtracting  a  whole  or  a  mixed  number  from  a  whole  or 
mixed  number,  (d)  adding  a  fraction  to  a  whole  or  mixed  number,  (e) 
finding  a  fraction  of  a  fraction,  (f)  reducing  a  mixed  number  to  an  im- 
proper fraction,  (g)  reducing  an  improper  fraction  to  a  whole  or  mixed 
number,  (h)  reducing  yards  to  inches,  (i)  drawing  a  line  of  a  given  length, 
(j)  reducing  inches  to  yards,  (k)  division  of  whole  numbers,  mixed  num- 
bers, or  fractions,  (1)  drawing  a  line  parallel  to  a  given  line,  (m)  draw- 
ing a  line  perpendicular  to  a  given  line,  (n)  drawing  a  circle  or  the  arc  of 
a  circle,  having  given  the  center  and  radius,  and  (o)  reading  geometrical 
figures  by  means  of  letters  representing  points. 

STUDY  NO.  2i.  Smith,  Nila  B.  "An  investigation  of  the  uses  of 
arithmetic  in  the  out-of-school  life  of  first-grade  children."  Elementary 
School  Journal,  Volume  24,  No.  8.    April,  1924.     pp.  621-23. 

Problem.  To  determine  the  type  of  arithmetic  used  by  500  first-grade 
pupils  in  the  Detroit  public  schools  in  their  out-of-school  life. 

Method.  The  data  were  obtained  by  having  100  regular  room  teachers 
interview  five  selected  children  each  morning  for  25  consecutive  days  con- 
cerning their  out-of-school  activities  and  record  facts  concerning  the  arith- 
metic used  in  connection  with  these  activities.  The  interviews  during  the 
first  week  were  for  the  purpose  of  familiarizing  the  teachers  and  pupils 
with  the  technique  of  the  investigation  and  were  not  in  the  data  under 
consideration.  In  the  investigation  each  teacher  itemized  daily  for  each 
pupil  the  content  of  the  situation  in  which  arithmetic  was  used,  the  num- 
bers involved,  the  operations  involved,  whether  the  operation  was  per- 
formed by  the  child  or  not,  the  classification  of  the  activity  according  to 
types.,  and  .the  number  of  times  the  particular  type  of  activity  was  used. 
Much  use  was  made  of  code  numbers  as  aids  in  tabulating  the  data. 


The  Third  Yearbook  61 


Findings.  The  results  are  shown  in  these  two  tabular  summaries: 

TABLE  2.— RELATIVE  FREQUENCY  WITH  WHICH  SITUATIONS  INVOLVING 
ARITHMETIC  OCCURRED 


Activity  Per  cent 

Transaction  in  stores 30.0 

Games  involving  counting 18.0 

Reading  Roman  numerals  on  clock 14 . 0 

Reading  Arabic  numerals  in  finding  pages  in  a  book 13 . 0 

Dividing  food  with  playmates  and  pets  (fractions) 6.0 

Depositing  money  in  and  drawing  money  from  toy  banks 5.0 

Playing  store 3.0 

Measuring  distance 2.2 

Using  calendars 2.0 

Running  errands 1.2 

Setting  the  table 1.2 

Buying  and  selling  tickets 1.1 

Acting  as  newsboy 1.0 

Measuring  in  sewing 1.0 

Counting  in  rhymes  and  jingles .5 

Reading  house  numbers .2 

Investments  (made  for  them) .1 

Measuring  in  manual  training .1 

Measuring  height , . .1 

Measuring  objects .1 

Reading  numbers  on  book  in  hall .1 

Reading  numbers  on  ticket .1 


100.0 


TABLE  3.— RELATIVE  FREQUENCY  OF  ARITHMETICAL  OPERATIONS 

Process  Per  cent 

Addition 35.0 

Counting • 23 . 0 

Subtraction 20.0 

Reading  Arabic  numbers 6.0 

Measuring 5.5 

Comparison 4.3 

Reading  Roman  numerals 3.1 

Multiplication ' 2.0 

Division 1.1 


100.0 


STUDY  NO.  22.  Adams,  H.  W.  The  mathematics  encountered  in 
general  reading  of  newspapers  and  periodicals.  Unpublished  Master's 
thesis.  Department  of  Education,  University  of  Chicago.  Reviewed  by 
Franklin  K.  Bobbitt  in  Elementarv  School  Journal,  Volume  25,  No.  2. 
October,  1924.     pp.  133-143. 

Problem.  To  discover  the  mathematics  employed  in  the  news,  special 
articles,  editorials,  advertisements,  legal  notices,  market  reports,  sporting 
pages,  etc.,  in  one  issue,  20  newspapers  and  magazines,  widely  read  by  the 
general  public. 

Method.  All  pages  of  one  issue  of  the  following  newspapers  and  maga- 
zines were  analyzed :  the  Chicago  Herald  and  Examiner,  the  Chicago 
Evening  American,  the  St.  Louis  Post  Dispatch,  the  Springfield,  Missouri, 
Republican,  the  Springfield  Leader,  the  Lebanon  Rustic,  the  Pathfinder, 
the  Furrow,  the  Dearborn  Independent,  the  Springfield  Laborer,  the 
Cosmopolitan,  the  Woman's  Home  Companion,  the  American  Magazine, 


62  Department  of  Superintendence 

the  Household,  the  Pictorial  Review,  the  Woman's  World,  the  Literary 
Digest,  the  Modern  Priscilla,  McCall's,  and  the  National  Geographic 
Magazine. 

Findings.  1.  Dates  were  numerous,  oftentimes  giving  the  year,  the 
month,  the  day,  the  hour,  and  the  minute. 

2.  There  were  found  3378  street  addresses  in  all  sorts  of  combinations, 
e.g.,  1918  Broadway,  Department  909;  and  4711  North  Clark  Street. 

3.  A  total  of  1713  telephone  numbers  were  discovered.  They  were 
expressed  in  a  great  variety  of  ways- 

4.  Numbers  varied  from  such  expressions  as  "50  words"  to  "255,000,000 
packages  of  breakfast  food."  In  all  there  were  21,619  such  expressions. 
Most  of  them  had  two-place  numbers,  but  many  had  nine  or  more  places. 

5.  Roman  numerals  occurred  148  times.  They  were  used  most  frequently 
to  designate  the  volumes  of  papers  or  books,  chapters  of  books,  or  sections 
of  books.     Most  of  the  Roman  numerals  were  below  a  hundred. 

6.  References  to  United  States  money  varied  from  one  cent  to  $100,000,- 
000,000.  However,  most  of  the  amounts  were  less  than  $100.  Reference 
to  foreign  money  contained  the  following  terms:  German  marks,  Italian 
lire,  Japanese  yen,  Indian  rupees,  English  pounds,  English  three-pence, 
English  guineas,  and  English  half-crown. 

7.  Only  six  fractions  out  of  3000  had  a  denominator  larger  than  16. 
The  largest  denominator  was  10,000,000. 

8.  Decimals  without  the  use  of  United  States  money  occurred  frequently. 
The  smallest  decimal  without  the  use  of  United  States  money  was  .000,012, 
and  the  largest  one  was  .97.    Most  decimals  had  less  than  four  places. 

9.  A  great  variety  of  percentages  were  found,  e.g.,  1%,  1%,  2,  2%,  3, 
33-1/3,  99-44/100,  177,  700,  1,000,  and  1,300. 

10.  Simple  ratios  were  found  in  a  variety  of  ways,  e.g.,  30  to  1,  1  in 
1,000,000,000,  a  5-3-3  ratio,  fifty-fifty,  etc. 

11.  Almost  every  conceivable  unit  of  measure  was  used.  The  different 
units  usually  found  in  the  following  tables  of  measure  were  used:  dry 
measure,  liquid  measure,  linear  measure,  square  measure,  avoirdupois  meas- 
ure, measure  of  time,  measure  for  electricity,  and  various  miscellaneous 
measures  as  degree,  calorie,  volt,  cord,  dozen,  teaspoon,  tablespoon,  etc. 

12.  Few  graphs  were  used. 

13.  There  were  numerous  mathematical  terms  or  expressions  used  as: 
cedar  chest  40x18x18,  40  per  cent  surtax,  90  miles-an-hour-gale,  a  12 
horse-power  engine,  etc. 

14.  No  arithmetic  problems  of  the  textbook  type  occurred,  although 
mathematical  materials  were  presented  so  as  to  enable  the  reader  to  solve 
almost  any  problem  which  might  occur  to  him  concerning  the  situation 
described. 

15.  There  was  virtually  no  reference  to  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigo- 
nometry in  the  magazines  analyzed. 


The  Third  Yearbook  63 


III.  According  to  What  Criteria  Should  Drill  be  Organized? 

The  committee  has  not  succeeded  in  getting  a  summary  of  studies  bear- 
ing upon  this  point.  Kirby,  Practice  in  the  Case  of  School  Children,  Teach- 
ers College,  Columbia  University,  1913,  showed  the  large  values  resulting 
from  systematic  drill. 

Thorndike  has.  given  data  bearing  upon  the  same  point.  The  trend  of 
evidence  is  that  in  the  intermediate  grades,  when  drill  is  confined  to 
processes  that  are  useful  and  well  understood,  regular  time  spent  upon 
systematic  drill  gives  returns  unequalled  by  any  other  type  of  procedure. 
The  findings  are  in  favor  of  systematic  drill  rather  than  incidental  drill. 

Another  finding,  on  which  the  evidence  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  one 
could  wish,  is  that  attempts  to  do  number  work  in  the  lowest  grades,  par- 
ticularly in  grades  one  and  two  where  the  processes  are  so  frequently  not 
comprehended  by  the  children,  results  in  the  development  of  errors  which 
become  a  strong  handicap  in  later  work.  This  will  be  noted  more  fully 
under  Section  IV  of  this  report. 

The  chief  contribution  under  this  section  is  a  definite  and  complete  plan 
worked  out  by  F.  B.  Knight  for  organizing  the  drill  work  of  the  fifth  and 
sixth  grades.  The  summary  of  this  report  is  presented  first  for  the  con-, 
venience  of  the  reader.  Dr.  Knight  has  shown,  in  a  masterful  way,  and 
much  more  thoroughly  than  present  space  permits  to  be  shown,  the  surpris- 
ing inefficiency  and  haphazard  procedure  which  exists  in  drill  work;  the 
possibility  of  formulating  drill  to  meet  definite  specifications;  and  the 
necessity  of  systematic  drill  if  automatic  memory  results  are  to  be  had  and 
permanently  maintained. 

Summary  of  Report  on  Organization  of  Drill 

Introduction:  Two  uses  of  drill:  1.  Drill  as  a  teaching  instrument; 
2.  Drill  to  maintain  skills  after  instruction  is  passed.  The  following  is  a 
list  of  processes  to  be  drilled  under  Use  2,  with  suggested  times  at  which 
drill  on  each  process  should  begin. 

DRILL  ORGANIZATION  FOR  MAINTAINING  ACQUIRED  SKILLS 

Specification  I.     Drill  should  be  on  the  entire  process. 

(a)  Various   forms    or   types 

(b)  Frequency  of  each  number  combination  in  drill 

(c)  Location  of  number  combinations  in   all  positions 

(d)  Computation    difficulties   present 

(e)  Illustrations  from  texts  on  appearance  of  unit  skills  in  fraction  drills 

(f)  Comment  on  the  distribution  of  practice  among  the  several  unit  skills  in- 

volved in  the  division  of  fractions 

(g)  Drills   can  be   built  to   specifications 

Specification  II.     Drill  should  come  frequently  in  small  amounts. 

(a)  Distribution  of  time  for  drill  on  a  single  process 

(b)  Two  opposing  theories  of  time  distribution 

(c)  The  cold  storage  theory  and  its  weaknesses 

(d)  Illustrations  from  texts  on  time  distribution  of  drill  on  division  of  fractions 

(e)  Comments  on  the  illustrations  of  fraction  drill 


64  Department  of  Superintendence 


Specification  III.     Each  drill  unit  should  be  a  mixed  drill 

(a)  Isolated  and  mixed  fundamental  types  of  organization 

(b)  Illustrations   of  the    isolation   theory 

(c)  Illustrations  of  the  mixed  fundamental  theory 

(d)  Examples  in  each  process  to  contain  calculated  practice 

(e)  Advantages  of  the  mixed  fundamental  type  of  drill 
Specification  IV.     Drills   should  have  time  limits. 

(a)  Speed    a   secondary   consideration 

(b)  Wrong  types  of  time  standards 

(c)  Correct  use  of  time  standards  involves  product  measures 
Specification  V.     Drills  should  have  accuracy  standards. 

(a)  The  shortcomings  of  the  100  per  cent  accuracy  standard  for  a  list  of  ex- 

amples 

(b)  Time  and   accuracy  standards  combined 

(c)  Three  factors  of  time  and  accuracy  standards 

(d)  A    definite    technique    described 

(e)  Advantages   of  the   suggested    technique 

(f)  Use   of  the   progress   chart 

(g)  Cost  of  the  suggested  technique  is  justified 

Specification  VI.  Examples  in  a  unit  of  drill  should  be  in  the  order  of  difficult}'. 

(a)  Range  of  difficulty  should  be  commensurate  with  range  of  abilities 

(b)  Easy  examples  should  include   all  processes 
Specification  VII.     Drill  units  should  include  verbal  problems. 

Problem  solving  should  not  be   isolated. 
Specification  VIII..    Drills  should   facilitate  diagnosis. 

(a)  Remedial   work   should   be   specific 

(b)  Waste    of   indiscriminate    drill 

(c)  Suggested  standards  of  technique  facilitates  remedial  work 

(d)  Hard  aspects  as  well  as  total  examples  should  be  present  in  drills 

(e)  Teacher's   cue   for   remedial  work 

Drill  in  Fifth  and  Sixth  Grades 

For  the  purpose  of  facilitating  discussion,  let  us  assume  by  agreement 
that  drill  or  practice  has  two  functions:  First,  to  aid  in  learning  new  pro- 
cesses, this  use  of  drill  is  the  instructional  use;  second,  to  help  maintain  a 
skill  after  the  class  and  the  teacher  have  gone  to  the  trouble  of  building  up 
a  new  skill.  This  second  use  of  drill  is  drill  for  permanency.  The  present 
discussion  is  concerned  with  the  organization  of  drill  material  in  the  fifth 
and  sixth  grades,  the  purposes  of  which  are  to  keep  permanent  the  skills 
that  have  been  built. 

Listing  the  Skills 

The  list  of  skills  to  be  kept  permanently  up  to  standard  as  a  result  of 
drill  is  more  or  less  arbitrary.  It  should  be  limited  to  useful  processes  as 
developed  in  Section  II  above.  On  this  basis,  one  is  justified  in  listing  at 
least  the  following  skills: 

Addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  of  whole  numbers. 

Addition,  subtraction,  and  multiplication  of  small  fractions;  occasionally 
division  of  simple  fractions 

Addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  of  decimals  as  required 
in  United  States  money 


The  Third  Yearbook  65 


Computing  simple  areas  and  simple  percentage 

The  time  of  entrance  of  these  skills  into  the  course  of  study  is  conditioned 
by  local  requirements  and  should  be  largely  governed  by  individual  interests 
and  local  needs.  Since  the  topic  under  discussion  is  drill  for  the  permanence 
of  holding  skills,  it  goes  without  saying,  that  if  the  topics  listed  above  are 
to  be  drilled  to  maintain  skill  in  them  at  the  time  listed,  they  must  have 
been  taught  previously  to  those  times. 

Specifications  of  Proper  Drill  Organization 

The  next  pages  contain  a  description  of  the  organization  of  drill  which 
serves  the  purpose  of  maintaining  skill  in  a  process  after  it  has  been  taught 
and  after  the  instructional  aspect  of  the  class  work  is  no  longer  concerned 
with  that  skill  but  with  some  new  process.  Examples  are  given  supporting 
the  specifications  for  organization  of  drill  which  are  believed  to  be  superior. 
Examples  of  contrasting  types  of  drill  organization  are  on  occasion  inserted 
not  for  purposes  of  criticism  but  to  make  the  specifications,  present  in  the 
report,  clear  through  contrast  with  opposite  types. 

Specification  I.  Drill  Should  Be  On  the  Entire  Process 

(a)  Various  forms  or  types— After  instruction  on  a  process  is  completed, 
the  drill  given  to  it  should  practice  in  some  calculated  fashion  all  the  various 
types  of  that  process  or  all  that  have  been  taught.  Such  drill  should  con- 
tinue throughout  the  elementary  school.     By  way  of  illustrations: 


Example 

A 

Example  B 

Example  C 

345 

768 

427640 

567 

54 

392769 

879 

879 

4318 

407 

807 

915043 

215 

423 

All  the  drill  in  the  addition  of  whole  numbers  given  after  the  process  of 
whole  numbers  has  been  mastered  from  the  standpoint  of  instruction  should 
not  be  like  Example  A  above.  There  should  be  some  drill  upon  examples 
like  B  and  C,  since  the  ability  to  neglect  gaps  in  the  column  is  an  ability 
that  does  not  come  by  magic,  can  just  as  well  be  practiced,  and  is  a  type 
which  the  demands  of  life  often  present. 

In  the  present  drill  services,  we  note  a  lack  of  presenting  the  pupil  with 
addition  examples  of  irregular  outline. 

The  list  of  the  items  which  go  to  make  the  total  process  of  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication,  or  division  of  whole  numbers  is  a  list  on  which 
there  is  as  yet  no  common  agreement.  Following  this  paragraph,  there  are 
included  the  two  analyses  of  processes,  subtraction  of  whole  numbers  and 
division  of  fractions.  Some  such  analyses  as  these  should  be  used  to  check 
drill  provisions.  Drill  provisions  are  weak  to  the  extent  that  they  slight 
important  units  of  skill.     They  are  also  weak  to  the  extent  that  they  pro- 


66 


Department  of  Superintendence 


vide  unnecessary  over-practice  or  wasteful  practice  upon  units  of  skill  which 
possess  no  particular  difficulty.  Obviously,  drill  is  good  to  the  extent  that 
it  provides  practice  upon  each  type  of  the  total  skill  in  proportion  to  the 
difficulty  of  each  type. 

Analysis  of  Subtraction  of  Whole  Numbers  in  Terms  of  Learning  Process 


I.    As  to  Form  of  Stating  Example: 
A.     Number  written  with   figures 

1.  Indicated   subtraction,    as    6  —  2  =  4 
Additive  subtraction,  as      6  —  ?  =  4 

6 

2.  Column    subtraction,    as  2 


Unit  of  Skill 
Number 


1 
la 


II. 


3.     Words  used  9  "minus"  or  "less"  or  "take  from",  as 
9  minus  4 

B.  Numbers  written  with  words 

1.  Indicated    subtraction,    as    Four  —  two 

2.  Words   used,    as   Four   "minus",   "less",   "take   from" 

C.  Pictures  used 

1.  Indicated    subtraction,    as 

0  5  5  -  S  5 

2.  Words  used,  as  5  5  5  minus  Q 

As  to  Procedure: 

A.     No  borrowing  or  carrying 

1.  One  digit,   as         number — 1   digit  number.     6 — 4  = 

2.  Two   digit   number  —  1    digit   number 
When  difference  is  1  digit,  as         12 


2a 

3 

4 

5 


When  difference  is  2  digits,  as 


18 
-6 


10 


3.     Two  digit  numbers  less  two  digits,  as        48 

—24 


4.     When  the  remainder  is  zero,  as 


5.     More  than  two  digit  number,   as 


6.     Zero  in   subtrahend,    as  463 

—102 


6 
—6 

16 
—6 

483 
—121 

463 
—120 

11 


12 


13 


14 


The  Third  Yearbook  67 


7.     Zero  in  both  subtrahend  and  minuend,  as       40 

—20  15 


S.     Gaps  in  column,  as  483 

—21  16 


B.     Borrowing    or    carrying: 

1.     Two   digit   number  —  one   digit,    as  46 

—6  17 


2.     Two    digit    number  —  one    digit 

Zero   in    minuend,    as  40 

—6  18 


3.     More   than   two   digit   number 

(a)     Borrowing   units    column,    as  423 

—117  19 


(b)     Borrowing   other  than   units  column,   as        463 

—178  20 


(c)     Borrowing    two    consecutive    columns,    as       482 

—197  21 


(d)     Borrowing  two   not  consecutive   columns,    as 

4236 
—1718  22 


4.     Borrowing   zero   in   minuend,    as  420 

—128  23 


5.     Borrowing  two  zeros  in  minuend,  as  4200 

—1267  24 


6.     Borrowing  more  than  2  zeros,  as  43000 

—12675  25 


7.     Borrowing  zero  in  both  not  final,  as  4306 

—1204  26 


8.     Borrowing  zero  final,  as  248000 

—162000  27 


9.     Subtraction   unequal    number   digits,    as 

(a)      Where  zero  is  subtracted  from  last  left  number,  as 

4862 
—732  28 


68  Department  of  Superintendence 


(b)      Where   zero  is  not  subtracted,    as       1467 

—835  29 


(c)      Last  left  numbers   are  equal,   as  635 

—604  30 


C.  Ability  to  check  31 

D.  Ability  to  copy  for  work   as       43728  —  39162  = 

43728 
—39162  32 


Analysis  of  Division  of  Fractions  in  Terms  of  the  Learning  Process 

Unit  of 
Skill 
As  to  the  Form  of  Stating  the  Example  Number 

A.     Fractions   written    in   figures 

1.  Indicated    divisions,    as    3/8-4-1/2  1 

2.  Words  "divided  by,"  as  4/5  divided  by  1/3  2 

3.  Complex    fractions,    as    3/5 

1/3  3 

4.  Division  indicated  by  parentheses,  as  1/4)1/12,     or  1/2)4/5  4 


B.     Fractions  written  with  words 

1.  Indicated   division,    as   two   sevenths-4-one   sixth  5 

2.  Words  "divided  by"  used,  as  one  eighth  divided  by  three  fifths  '  6 

I.    As   to  Procedure 

A.     Nature  of  terms — Expression  of  all  terms  as  fractions 

1.  Unit  fraction-4-unit   fraction,   as   1/8-4-1/9  7 

2.  Unit  fraction-4-other  proper  fraction,  1/3-4-2/5  8 

3.  Unit  fraction-4-improper  fraction,   as   1/9-4-7/4  9 

4.  Unit  fraction-4-mixed   number,    as   1/2-4-2   3/5  10 

5.  Unit  fraction-:-whole   number,    as    1/4-4-7  11 

6.  Other  proper  fraction-4-unit  fraction,  as  3/4-4-1/7  12 

7.  Other  proper  fraction-f-other  proper  fractions,  as  3/4-4-2/7  13 
S.  Other  proper  fraction-4-improper' fraction,  as  3/8-4-4/3  14 
9.  Other  proper  fraction-4-mixed  number,  as  7/10-4-1  2/3  15 

10.  Other  proper  fraction-4-whole    number,    as   4/9-4-8  16 

11.  Improper  fraction-4-unit    fraction,    as    7/5-4-1/3  17 

12.  Improper  fraction-4-other  proper  fraction,   as   5/4-4-7/8  18 

13.  Improper  fraction-f-improper  fraction,  as  5/2-4-8/3  19 

14.  Improper  fraction-4-mixed  number,  as  9/7-4-1  1/5  20 

15.  Improper  fraction-4-whole  number,  as  7/5-4-3  21 

16.  Mixed   number-4-unit  fraction,    as    1    5/6-4-1/2  22 

17.  Mixed  number-4-other  proper  fraction,  as  3   8/9-4-4/5  23 

18.  Mixed  number-4-improper   fraction,    as    5   2/5-4-13/4'  24 

19.  Mixed  number-4-mixed   number,   as  4  2/9-4-7   1/3  25 


The  Third  Yearbook  69 


20.  Mixed  numbers-whole  number,    as   3    7/8S-5  26 

21.  Whole  numbers-unit   fraction,    as   8-=-l/7  27 

22.  Whole  number-mother  proper  fraction,  as  9S-3/5  28 

23.  Whole  numbers-improper  fraction,   as  6S-7/3  29 

24.  Whole  numbers- mixed  number,   as  4S-3    5/8  30 

25.  Whole  numbers-larger  whole  number,  as  7S-15  31 

B.  Change  of  S-  to   X  32 

C.  Inversion  of  divisor  33 

D.  Cancellation 

1.  No  cancellation  possible,  as  3/5X4/7  34 

2.  Single    cancellation 

a.  One  number,  a  factor  of  the  other,  as  3/5X7/9  35 

b.  Two  numbers  with  a  common  factor,  as  6/7X5/S  36 

3.  Double   cancellation 

a.  In  each  case  one  number  a  factor  of  the  other,  as  3/4X8/9  37 

b.  In  each  case  two  numbers  with  a  common  factor,  as  8/9 X  15/18      38 

4.  Rec.     One  case  of  each  type  of  cancellation,  as  3/10S-8/9  39 

5.  Reduction    cancellation 

a.  One  number  a  factor  of  the  other,  as  2/8  40 

b.  Two  numbers  with  a  common  factor,  as  8/10  41 

6.  Incomplete    or    continued    cancellation 

a.  One  number  a  factor  of  the  other,  8/9S-1  1/3S-1   1/15  42 

b.  Two  numbers  with  a  common  factor,  1  37/40s-2  3/16S-1  19/25      43 

E.  Multiplication  , 

1.  Neither  factor  unity  in  numerator  or  denominator,  as  3/8X5/6  44 

2.  One  factor  unity  in  numerator,  as  1/7X5/8  45 

3.  One  factor  unity  in   denominator,   as  3/5X4                            .  46 

4.  Both  factors  unity  in  numerator,  as   1/4X1/6  47 

5.  Both  factors  unity  in  denominator,  as  10X3/5  48 

F.  Analysis   of  quotient 

1.  Quotient  a  whole   number 

a.  Cancellation  complete — irreducible   as   7/1  49 

b.  Cancellation   incomplete — reducible    as    15/3  50 

2.  Quotient    a    proper    fraction 

a.  Cancellation   complete — irreducible   as   2/3  51 

b.  Cancellation    incomplete — reducible 

(1)  Numerator  a  factor  of  denominator,   as   3/15  52 

(2)  Numerator  and  denominator  having  a  common  factor 

as  8/10  53 

3.  Quotient  an   improper   fraction — reduce   to  mixed   number 

a.  Cancellation  complete — fraction   irreducible,   as   13/4  54 

b.  Cancellation  incomplete — fraction  reducible,  as  21/6  5  5 

(b)    Frequency  of  each  number  combination  in  drill— A  consideration  of 
the  nature  of  drill  material  second  only  in  importance  to  the  calculated 

appearance  of  every  type  of  example  is  the  matter  of  the  frequency  with 
which  each  number  combination  occurs.                                                    < 


70 


Department  of  Superintendence 


FIG.  i 


- 

o 

\ 

2 

3 

4- 

5 

fo 

7 

& 

9 

T 

1 

2GI- 

?H2 

aw 

1 36 

146 

I7| 

&o 

lo6 

73 

71 

I  258 

2 

84 

46    3H 

149 

142 

91 

39 

57 

50 

75 

755 

3 

<b3 

31 

48 

|^9 

lo3 

92 

69 

55 

5o 

54 

565 

A 

loo 

50 

77 

35 

2o5 

164- 

71 

67 

75 

74 

7  13 

5 

198 

36 

b7 

22 

25 

136 

61 

39 

50 

48 

371 

6 

83 

41 

57 

4o 

37 

33 

192 

156 

62 

5!) 

S&8 

7 

57 

32 

3b 

29 

36 

19 

16 

So 

4& 

55 

327 

6 

124 

46 

e>o 

35 

49 

48 

36 

27 

152|124 

569 

9 

Ol 

33 

30 

28 

32 

20 

26 

2;C 

19  »3 

301 

c 

<D 

O 
v- 

D 


Total  5617 

This  Chart  is  Based  on  Data  Published  in  Thorndike's  Psychology  of  Arithmetic. 

Figure  1. — Distribution  of  Practice  from  Text  X. 

Read  as  follows:  1  is  taken  from  0,  261  times;  7  is  taken  from  5  (15), 
19  times;  etc. 

If  an  analysis  of  a  year's  drill  in  the  addition  of  whole  numbers  revealed 
the  fact  that  the  combination  2  -\-  2  appeared  twice  as  often  as  did  the 
combination  9  -f-  7,  a  superintendent  would  be  justified  in  suspecting  that 
the  drill  work  for  that  year  was  incorrectly  constructed. 

Most  review  drill  work  at  the  present  time  is  constructed  more  on  the 
"number  of  examples,"  or  the  "number  of  pages"  principle  than  upon  the 
more  useful  principle  of  the  number  of  appearances  of  each  combination. 

Figures  1-3  show  the  frequency  with  which  the  several  subtraction  com- 
binations are  practiced  in  the  drill  work  on  the  subtraction  of  whole  num- 
bers given  in  two  textbooks,  grades  three  to  six.  The  names  of  these 
books  are  withheld  for  obvious  reasons.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that 
one  of  these  texts  observes  that  aspect  of  Specification  1  which  has  to  do 
with  the  distribution  of  drill  upon  all  the  combinations.  The  other  text- 
book serves  as  a  practical  contrast  with  Specification  1. 

A  study  of  Figure  1  will  show  the  reader  that  while  this  drill  looks 
satisfactory  when  hurriedly  scanned,  it  does  as  a  matter  of  fact  fail  to  meet 
Specification  1.  Those  combinations  which  involve  borrowing,  or  carrying, 
according  to  the  method  of  subtraction  used,  are  practiced  less  frequently 
than  those  which  involve  no  borrowing  or  carrying.  Thus,  the  easier  is 
practiced  the  more  often.  The  frequency  with  which  combinations  occur 
was  evidently  not  a  matter  of  deliberation.  No  one  would,  ,for  instance, 
really  purpose  to  practice  7 — 6,  156  times  and  7 — 5,  59  times. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


71 


It  seems  fair  to  say  that  the  theory  upon  which  this  drill  is  built  is  one 
that  maintains  that  gross  quantity  of  drill  or  drill  by  the  square  inch  of 
printed  page  is  satisfactory.     It  is  not. 

FIG.  2 


— o 
c 

4J 


ZQ 

3 


- 

o 

1 

a. 

3U 

5 

6 

7 

& 

9 

T 

1. 

" 

\ 

62 

'40 

30 

30J30 

40 

40 

40 

40 

40 

39 

2 

2. 

62 

62 

40 

30 

30 

30 

30 

40 

40 

40 

40 

4 

3 

62 

62 

62 

40 

3o 

30 

30 

40 

40 

40 

43 

6 

4- 

62 

62 

62 

£2 

40 

30 

30 

40 

4o 

40 

4b 

6 

5 

62 

62 

62 

62 

62 

40 

30 

3D 

40 

4o 

49 

O 

6 

62 

62 

62 

62 

&2 

62 

40 

4o 

40 

5o 

541 

2 

1  7 

62 

62 

62 

62 

62 

62 

62 

40 

4o 

bo 

36 

4 

1  & 

62 

62 

62 

62 

62 

62 

62 

6b 

40 

5o 

ht 

)6 

J  9  |6b 

6b 

65 

6b 

6b 

6b 

6b 

6b 

6bj 

40 

6 

sb 

Ic 

Figure  2. — Distribution  of  Practice  from  Text  Y. 

Read  as  follows:  2  is  taken  from  0   (10),  62  times;  2  is  taken  from 
1   ( 1 1 ) ,  62  times ;  etc. 

A  study  of  Figure  2  will  show,  that  it  observes  Specification  I  of  this 
report. 

FIG.  3 


Total 

Textx 

Texty 

A 

5617 

4495 

B 

3306 

1675 

c 

57^% 

36  y2% 

D 

2391 

2820 

E 

42  J/2% 

63J^% 

Figure  3. — A  Comparison  of  Figures  1  and  2. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  while  the  gross  amount  of  drill  in  Text  X  is  greater 
than  the  gross  amount  in  Text  Y,  the  amount  of  drill  upon  the  harder 
aspects  of  subtraction,  in  Text  X  is  significantly  smaller  than  in  Text  Y. 

(c)  Location  of  number  combinations  in  all  positions — To  construct 
drill  that  will  possess  a  defensible  distribution  of  practice  among  the  various 
number  combinations  would  be  a  substantial  advance  upon  much  of  the 
drill  material  of  the  present  time.  A  further  advance  is  desirable  though 
its  attainment  involves  exceeding  care  in  drill  construction.     Every  num- 


72  Department  of  Superintendence 

ber  combination  should  not  only  appear  with  calculated  frequency  but 
should  appear  in  examples  in  various  places.  This  variety  of  position  within 
the  examples  will  offset  any  subtle  tendency  to  learn  a  number  of  combina- 
tions in  a  lopsided  fashion.    A  few  illustrations  are  pertinent. 

In  these  multiplication  examples,  note  that  multiplying  by  6  does  not 
always  mean  first  multiply  by  6. 

856  856  856 

X  406  X  463  X  643 

In  these  addition  examples,  the  carrying  of  two  is  not  tied  to  the  first 
carrying  to  be  done. 

201  120  102 

430  340  304 

674  467  746 

805  580  508 

354  435  453 

In  these  subtraction  examples,  7  is  subtracted  from  4,  not  only  when 
both  the  7  and  the  4  are  seen  but  also  when  one  of  the  numbers  in  the 
subtraction  7  from  4  is  unseen. 

564  552a  542b 

—  347  —378  or       —368 


Generally,  it  is  unwise  in  drills  involving  several  processes  always  to 
have  the  addition  example  come  first,  then  the  subtraction  examples,  and 
so  on.  The  order  in  which  examples  of  different  processes  come,  should 
be  mixed  as  well  as  the  examples.  This  is  to  offset  any  subtle  help  that 
the  order  of  drill  work  might  give  to  the  pupil  in  forming  the  harmful 
habit  of  first  adding,  then  subtracting,  etc.,  in  a  unit  of  any  kind  of 
arithmetic  work.  This  last  consideration  assumes  that  the  drills  for  main- 
taining skills  previously  learned  contain  examples  of  several  processes,  a 
specification  defended  later  in  this  report. 

(d)  Computation  difficulties  present — Under  Specification  1,  we  are 
concerned  not  only  in  practicing  all  the  various  types  of  examples  of  a 
process  that  may  be  expected  to  appear  in  real  life  but  in  practicing  with 
calculated  frequency  the  specific  number  combinations  which  occur  in  that 
process ;  we  are  also  concerned  with  the  calculated  frequency  of  appearance 
of  all  the  specific  difficulties  that  are  contained  in  that  process. 

Thus  in  the  addition  of  whole  numbers,  it  would  be  possible  to  practice 
all  the  combinations  and  all  forms  of  examples  and  still  practice  the  carry- 
ing of .  1  or  nothing  practically  all  the  time.  This  would  be  patently  un- 
fortunate since  by  the  very  mechanics  of  habit-formation,  if  a  pupil  carries  1 


a  552  practices  4  —  7  if  the  borrowing  method  is  used  by  the  pupil. 

—  378 

b  542  practices  4  —  7  if  the  additive  method  is  used  by  the  pupil. 

—  368 


The  Third  Yearbook 


73 


or  nothing  most  of  the  time  he  is  more  liable  to  carry  1  (what  he  usually 
does)  when  he  ought  to  carry  2,  3,  or  even  4. 

We  are  of  the  opinion  that  many  of  the  irritating  errors  of  pupils  are 
due  to  the  fact  that  one  response  has  been  so  favored  that  it  has  become 
a  preferred  response  to  a  situation  that  should  be  attached  to  several 
responses  instead  of  to  a  single  one.  Thus  a  pupil  using  a  textbook  or  a  drill 
service  which  gives  85  per  cent  of  carrying  practice  to  the  carrying  of  1 
probably  aids  and  abets  errors  in  carrying. 

(e)  Illustrations  from  texts  on  appearance  of  unit  skills  in  fraction 
drills — Table  4  shows  the  frequency  with  which  the  several  types  of  possi- 
bilities in  the  division  of  fractions  and  small  mixed  numbers  are  met  in  five 
standard  textbooks  during  the  sixth-grade  drill  work  on  maintaining  that 
'skill.  The  unit  skill  number  at  the  left  of  the  page  refers  to  similar  num- 
bers found  in  the  analysis  of  the  division  of  fractions  given  on  page  68. 

TABLE  4.— THE  FREQUENCY  OF  PRACTICE  ON  UNIT  SKILLS  INVOLVED  IN 
THE  DIVISION  OF  FRACTIONS  IN  FIVE  SIXTH-GRADE  TEXTBOOKS 


f  Skill  Number 

Frequency 

Unit  o 

Text  A 

Text  B 

Text  C 

Text  D 

Text  E» 

1 

161 

112 

84 

85 

84 

2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

4 

6 

7 

0 

0 

0 

0 

7 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

S 

0 

0 

0 

2 

2 

10 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

11 

0 

0 

0 

6 

4 

12 

0 

0 

12 

8 

6 

13 

13 

38 

0 

0 

18 

15 

0 

0 

0 

0 

11 

16 

10 

0 

0 

0 

4. 

22 

0 

0 

0 

2 

1 

23 

2 

18 

3 

2 

7 

24 

5 

0 

0 

0 

0 

25 

16 

8 

2 

25 

14 

26 

6 

23 

9 

7 

4 

27 

18 

0 

7 

1 

3 

28 

15 

10 

17 

4 

5 

29 

0 

1 

0 

0 

1 

30 

15 

10 

4 

23 

4 

34 

40 

76 

12 

24 

35 

35 

86 

1 

29 

34 

30 

36 

3 

3 

0 

3 

5 

37 

3 

21 

4 

21 

9 

38 

5 

0 

0 

0 

1 

39 

4 

0 

0 

0 

6 

42 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

43 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

44 

35 

90 

29 

62 

64 

45 

10 

17 

20 

26 

30 

46 

28 

4 

8 

29 

30 

47 

6 

4 

0 

4 

12 

48 

2 

6 

32 

38 

10 

49 

45 

50 

34 

36 

13 

51 

27 

24 

13 

19 

35 

52 

0 

6 

18 

0 

1 

53 

18 

2 

14 

0 

1 

54 

45 

33 

7 

31 

37 

55 

5 

1 

0 

0 

1 

"Those  unit  skills  which  would  not  ordinarily  appear  in  drill,  or  which  are  taboo,  or  which  are 
common  to  all  examples,  are  omitted  from  this  frequency  table. 


74  Department  of  Superintendence 

(f)  Comments  on  the  distribution  of  practice  among  the  several  unit 
skills  involved  in  the  division  of  fractions — 1.  The  texts  vary  in  their  utter 
omission  of  certain  elements  of  the  division  of  fractions.  Of  the  unit  skills 
listed  in  Table  4,  Text  A  gives  no  practice  on  12  of  the  unit  skills;  Text 
B  on  16;  Text  C  on  18;  Text  D  on  16;  and  Text  E  on  5. 

It  is  evident  that  these  texts  vary  in  the  amount  of  faith  held  in  transfer. 
To  leave  out  18  of  the  unit  skills  involved  in  the  division  of  fractions 
assumes  a  transfer  within  a  function  of  a  type  and  of  an  amount  that  no 
published  experimental  data  support. 

After  studying  the  analysis  given  above  and  the  omissions  in  the  table, 
the  reader  will  be  hard  put  to  it  to  justify  many  of  the  omissions. 

2.  These  texts  vary  in  their  opinion  concerning  the  amounts  of  drill  that 
each  unit  skill  should  have.  Some  of  the  unit  skills  receive  much  practice 
in  one  text  and  little  or  none  in  another  text.  Thus  children  studying 
sixth-grade  arithmetic  from  different  texts  receive  a  very  different  experi- 
ence in  the  division  of  fractions.  It  would  be  valuable  to  know  the  relation- 
ship between  the  amount  of  drill  in  terms  of  the  unit  skills  involved  and 
the  frequency  of  errors  in  standard  tests. 

3.  Since  the  relative  difficulty  of  the  several  unit  skills  involved  in  the 
division  of  fractions  is  unknown  and  since  the  amount  of  transfer  among 
the  unit  skills  is  unknown,  the  writer  of  drill  material  is  on  uncertain 
ground  when  he  purposely  omits  or  gives  but  little  practice  to  any  of  the 
more  common  unit  skills. 

(g)  Drills  can  be  built  to  specifications — It  is  perfectly  practical  to  build 
drill  to  specifications.  As  an  illustration  of  this,  the  following  sample  of 
drill  material  in  the  addition  of  fractions  is  inserted. 

Sample  Drill  in  Addition  of  Fractions  Unit  Skills  Number 

2/5  +  1/2=9/10  1 — 6 — 12 — 16 — 19 

1/7 
1/11 


18/77  .                   2—6—12—16—19 

Add  two-thirds  plus  one-fourth=ll/l2  5 — 6 — 12 — 16—19 

3/10  +  1/2=4/5  1 — 6 — 12 — 15 — 20 

2/3+4/9=1    1/9  1 — 6 — 12 — 15 — 22 

8/20+3/5  =  1  1 — 6 — 12 — 15— 21 

4+1/2+1/4=4  3/4  .                                1 — 7 — 13 — 15 — 24 

1/4+8    5/6+1/3=9    5/12  1 — 8 — 13 — 18 — 26 

Two  and  three-eighths  plus  three  and  two-fifths=5   31/40              5 — 9 — 12 — 16 — 24 

One-thifd+four-fifths  +  eight-fifteenth=l   2/3  4 — 6—13—15—23 

Add  9  7/19  plus  4  12/19=14  3—9—12—14 — 27 

3    1/2+4  3/10=7  4/5  1 — -9 — 12 — 15 —  25 

4/9  +  11   5/6=12  5/18  1 — 9 — 12 — 17 — 26 

3/5+12+4  1/2=17  1/10  ,1 — 1 1 — 1 3 — 16 — 26 

7  1/2+5+4  1/3  =  16  5/6  1 — -10 — 13 — 16— 24 

2/5 

1/2 

2/4 

1  2/5  2—6—13—18—23 


The  Third  Yearbook  75 

1.  It  is  further  entirely  practical  that  committees  in  charge  of  the  mak- 
ing of  curricula  and  the  providing  of  instruments  of  instruction  analyze  and 
appraise  such  instruments  not  only  in  terms  of  gross  amount  but  also  in 
terms  of  the  internal  organization  of  the  material.  In  fact,  specifications 
for  drill  should  be  written  first  and  the  drills  subsequently  built  according 
to  them. 

Summary  of  Specification  I 

A.  At  the  present  time,  there  is  a  little  carelessness  in  many  drill  services 
relative  to  the  insertion  of  all  types  of  examples  in  drill  material.  There 
is  in  many  drill  services  an  unfortunate  disregard  of  the  proper  distribution 
of  practice  of  every  combination  used  in  a  process.  There  is  a  frequent 
omission  of  proper  practice  on  all  the  difficulties  of  procedure  within  a  total 
process. 

B.  We  do  not  yet  know  how  many  times  any  given  number  combina- 
tion should  be  practiced,  nor  do  we  know  the  relative  difficulty  of  the 
several  combinations.  Until  we  do,  it  is  best  to  practice  all  combinations 
an  equal  number  of  times,  or  if  more  practice  is  given  to  some  combinations 
than  to  others,  we  should  base  this  inequality  or  practice  upon  some  reason- 
able assumptions  rather  than  have  the  inequality  a  matter  of  chance  or  luck. 

C.  In  drill  construction,  scientific  specifications  should  be  written  first 
and  the  drills  drawn  to  meet  these  specifications.  The  specifications  should 
be  based  on  an  adequate  analysis  of  the  process  concerned. 

Specificaticn  II.  Drill  Should  Come  Frequently  in  Small  Amounts 

(a)  Distribution  of  time  for  drill  on  a  single  process — The  nature  of 
Specification  II  can  best  be  described  by  meeting  a  concrete  situation.  Sup- 
pose 100  minutes  are  allotted  to  drill  in  the  addition  of  whole  numbers  in 
grade  six,  how  can  the  100  minutes  be  best  distributed?  Consider  the 
possibilities  below : 

100  minutes  all  in  one  drill  in  September 
50  minutes  in  September  and  50  minutes  in  June 
25  minutes  in  September,  25  minutes  in  November,  25  minutes  in 

March,  25  minutes  in  June 
10  minutes  each  month 
5  minutes  each  two  weeks 
2%  minutes  each  week. 

(b)  Two  opposing  theories  of  time  distribution — The  extremes  of  prac- 
tice relative  to  the  distribution  of  drill  on  any  process  are  based  on  two 
theories  of  drill  organization  which  may  be  called  "the  cold  storage  theory" 
and  "the  small  doses  theory."  The  total  amount  of  drill  or  the  time  spent 
on  drill  may  well  be  the  same  in  both  instances.  The  question  here  is  not, 
"How  much  time  shall  be  spent,"  but  "How  shall  any  given  amount  of 
time  be  distributed  through  the  year?" 

(c)  The  cold  storage  theory  and  its  weaknesses — The  present  practice 
of  textbook  organization,  with  two  notable  exceptions,  leans  to  the  cold 


76  Department  of  Superintendence 

storage  theory.  The  embarrassment  of  having  to  defend  the  cold  storage 
theory  of  drill  is  avoided  by  occasional  footnotes  to  teachers  telling  them 
to  practice  on  a  certain  drill  frequently  during  the  rest  of  the  year.  This 
attempt  at  avoiding  the  weaknesses  of  the  cold  storage  theory  of  drill 
organization  carries  no  guarantee  of  success  since  the  average  classroom 
teacher  has  many  things  on  her  mind,  is  always  pressed  for  time,  and 
rightly  feels  that  the  text  should  as  far  as  possible  arrange  material  in 
defensible  order  rather  than  ask  her  to  do  what  the  author  of  the  text 
could  do  himself. 

Another  and  much  more  successful  escape  from  the  cold  storage  theory 
of  drill  organization  is  the  use  of  practice  material  which  is  quite  inde- 
pendent of  the  text.  By  the  use  of  these  drill  services  a  pupil  can  practice 
a  skill  at  frequent  intervals.  It  should  be  pointed  out,  however,  that  the 
use  of  many  of  the  drill  services  will  by  no  means  guarantee  the  maintain- 
ing of  skills  since  other  imported  specifications  of  good  drill  are  slighted 
in  them. 

Space  will  not  be  taken  here  to  defend  the  practice  of  giving  a  little 
drill  frequently  as  opposed  to  giving  large  amounts  at  long  intervals.  The 
psychology  of  forgetting  and  the  futility  of  practice  at  any  one  time  in 
excess  of  a  rather  modest  optimum  are  too  well  known  by  the  readers  of 
this  report  to  need  rehearsing  here. 

(d)  Illustrations  from  texts  on  time  distribution  of  drill  on  division  of 
fractions —  Table  5  shows  the  degrees  of  respect  paid  to  the  specification  of 
drill  organization  which  has  to  do  with  the  time  distribution  of  drill. 

Five  reputable  textbooks  of  sixth-grade  arithmetic  are  used  for  illustra- 
tion. The  progress  of  a  class  through  each  textbook  for  the  school  year 
was  estimated  by  eight  competent  and  experienced  teachers  of  arithmetic. 
Each  textbook  was  divided  into  36- week  sections  by  each  of  the  eight  judges 
estimating  the  natural  progress  of  a  class  through  each  book  separately. 
The  eight  judgments  for  each  book  were  then  averaged.  This  average  was 
used  as  the  36  weekly  divisions  of  each  text.  In  Table  5  each  week  rep- 
resents the  amount  of  work  that  a  class  would  do  if  the  total  book  is  finished 
during  the  year.  Since  the  amount  of  material  in  the  texts  studied  varies, 
classes  using  one  text  might  have  to  go  faster  per  hour  or  spend  more  hours 
or  omit  more  material  than  a  similar  class  using  another  of  the  texts.  Of 
course  all  classes  do  not  go  at  the  same  rate  and  no  one  class  may  go  at 
exactly  the  rate  used  here.  These  considerations,  however,  are  vital  to  the 
consideration  of  distributed  versus  concentrated  drill. 

(e)  Comments  on  the  illustrations  of  fraction  drill — 1.  If  the  organiza- 
tion of  drill  in  texts  A,  B,  C,  and  D  is  correct,  then  the  organization  of 
drill  work  in  text  E  is  wrong,  and  the  reverse.  While  no  important 
significance  should  be  attached  to  minor  differences  in  drill  organization,  it 
is  obvious  that  the  theories  underlying  the  construction  of  the  five  texts 
above  are  radically  different.  Texts  A,  B,  C,  and  D  practice  the  theory 
that  large  amounts  of  drill  infrequently  are  an  economical  method  of  main- 
taining a  skill.     Text  E  is  built  on  the  theory  that  a  little  drill  weekly  is 


The  Third  Yearbook 


77 


TABLE  5.— THE  TIME  DISTRIBUTION  OF  EXAMPLES  IN  THE  DIVISION  OF 
FRACTIONS  DURING  A  36-WEEK   SCHOOL  YEAR  FOR  5  SIXTH-GRADES 

TEXTBOOKS 


Week 

Number  of  Examples 

Text  A 

Text  B 

Text  C 

Text  D 

Text  E» 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

0 

0 

16 

0 

2 

3 

64 

6 

0 

0 

3 

4 

0 

38 

40 

0 

1 

5 

0 

31 

0 

0 

3 

6 

0 

0 

0 

0 

3 

7 

0 

0 

0 

0 

3 

8 

0 

0 

0 

0 

4 

9 

0 

0 

0 

0 

'3 

10 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

11 

0 

0 

0 

0 

3 

12 

1 

0 

0 

0 

5 

13 

0 

0 

0 

17 

1 

14 

0 

0 

0 

15 

3 

15 

0 

0 

2 

0 

5 

16 

0 

0 

0 

2 

1 

17 

0 

0 

0 

1 

3 

18 

0 

0 

0 

8 

3 

19 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

20 

0 

0 

0 

14 

2 

21 

33 

0 

0 

3 

4 

22 

41 

0 

0 

2 

1 

23 

14 

0 

0 

0 

2 

24 

0 

0 

0 

0 

3 

25 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

26 

0 

0 

2 

0 

3 

27 

0 

0 

4 

0 

2 

28 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

29 

0 

0 

0 

4 

3 

30 

0 

0 

13 

0 

3 

31 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

32 

0 

36 

0 

1 

4      . 

33 

0 

0 

0 

4 

3 

34 

8 

0 

0 

0 

1 

35 

7 

0 

9 

11 

2 

36 

0 

1 

0 

1 

1 

Total 

168 

112 

84 

85 

88 

»  Certain  examples  in  the  division  of  fractions  included  in  Text  E  are  omitted  from  this  count 
because  they  are  incorporated  in  a  series  of  inventory  units  which  are  not  paralleled  by  similar  units  in 
the  other  texts. 


an  economical  method  to  use  in  maintaining  skills.     It  is  hardly  possible 
that  both  theories  are  equally  sound. 

2.  It  might  be  urged  that  the  texts  A,  B,  C,  and  D  assume  the  use  of 
drill  pads.  However,  although  there  are  available  at  the  present  time 
various  drill  services  for  whole  numbers,  there  is  no  widely  used  drill 
service  for  fractions. 

3.  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  amount  of  drill  that  is 
necessary"  Text  A  uses  the  same  theory  of  infrequency  of  practice  as  does 
text  C.  Yet  text  A  gives  exactly  twice  as  much  practice.  Here  again 
both  texts  cannot  be  right.  If  168  examples  in  the  division  of  fractions  is 
the  correct  amount  of  practice  for  a  sixth^grade  text,  then  text  A  has  made 


78  Department  of  Superintendence 

adequate  provision  but  text  C  fails  to  give  enough  practice.  However,  if 
about  90  practices  during  the  sixth  grade  is  an  adequate  provision  then 
text  A  provides  wasteful  overpractice  while  text  G  provides  sufficient  drill. 

4.  The  difference  in  the  amount  of  drill  between  text  A  and  text  E  may 
be  explained  by  the  difference  in  the  distribution.  It  is  possible  that  text 
E  with  its  distributed  practice  will  give  as  much  or  more  skill  with  88 
practices  as  one  will  get  from  168  concentrated  practices  of  text  A. 

5.  It  is  also  possible  that  the  authors  of  the  texts  desire  different  amounts 
of  skill.  If  this  is  so,  we  have  a  defense  for  the  varying  amounts  of  prac- 
tice. The  fact  is  that  text  E  alone  gives  any  usable  information  about 
standards  of  attainment  in  the  division  of  fractions.  It  is  doubtful  if  the 
problem  of  attainment  in  measurable  terms  was  dealt  with  seriously  by  the 
other  texts. 

Specification  III.  A  Drill  Unit  Should  Be  a  Mixed  Drill 
A  further  consideration  of  drill  organization  has  to  do  with  the  content 
of  any  single  drill  unit.  If  we  agree  to  have  short  drills  used  frequently 
for  any  single  process  (Specification  II)  ;  if  we  agree  to  have  in  the  examples 
used  for  any  one  process  as  they  run  along  in  sequence,  practice  all  the 
combinations,  appear  in  various  forms,  and  possess  the  obvious  and  hidden 
difficulties  in  an  orderly  fashion,  we  have  yet  to  agree  upon  the  nature  of 
any  single  drill  unit. 

Shall  we  practice  addition  of  whole  numbers  today,  subtraction  of  whole 
numbers  tomorrow,  multiplication  the  next  day,  and  so  on?  Or  shall  we 
practice  a  little  of  each  process  so  far  mastered  in  each  drill  unit? 

(a)  Let  us  call  the  theory  of  having  each  drill  unit  possess  but  one 
process  the  Isolation  Theory,  and  the  theory  of  having  each  drill  unit  con- 
tain several  or  all  processes  mastered  at  the  time  the  Mixed  Fundamental 
Theory.  With  these  definitions  in  mind,  a  proper  specification  for  drill 
units  to  maintain  skill  is  the  use  of  the  Mixed  Fundamental  Theory. 

Below  are  examples  organized  according  to  the  two  theories. 

(b)  Illustrations  of  the  Isolation  Theory. 

A  Short  Addition  Drill  for  Monday 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

526 

228 

4.37 

169 

.437 

.06 

540 

239 

.28 

598 

602 

5.01 

124 

548 

.51  . 

■  798 

591 

.23 

521 

139 

9.26 

529 

832 

2.96 

985 

747 



699 

475 

5.72 

400 

529 

538 



— 

A  Short 

Subtraction 

Drill  for  Tuesday 

l. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

94327 

14409 

89176 

$14.70- 

-$6.30 

1433; 

-65234  . 

-  5642 

-24589 

- 

-572( 

The  Third  Yearbook  79 


A  Short  Multiplication  Drill  for  Wednesday 


348 

2. 

12.40 

3. 

709 

4. 

214 

5. 

195 

x70 

xll9 

7. 

214 

x603 

8. 

432  . 

x5 

9. 

7528 

x69 

6. 

864 

10. 

6104 

x628 

x5 

x67 

x269 

x3724 

Other  processes  could  be  drilled  upon  in  this  fashion : 

(c)  Contrast  this  use  of  the  Isolation  Theory  with  the  use  of  the  Mixed 
Fundamental  Theory.  Note  that  the  examples  given  above  appear  in  these 
mixed  fundamental  drills  on  page  81. 

The  examples  of  the  mixed  fundamental  theory  of  drill  organization  here 
given  are  used  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  grade.  Similar  drills  used  in 
the  last  half  of  the  sixth  grade  would  contain  examples  of  processes  mastered 
during  the  year.  Those  who  organize  the  drill  work  upon  the  mixed 
fundamental  theory  should  make  it  a  point  to  insert  into  each  drill  unit 
examples  of  each  new  process  as  soon  as  it  is  mastered  from  the  instruction 
of  the  year.  In  this  way  each  process  that  a  pupil  has  learned  is  practiced 
upon  at  very  short  intervals. 

(d)  Examples  of  each  skill  to  contain  calculated  practice — This  same 
principle  of  frequent  practice  upon  the  process  should  be  extended  to  the 
items  that  constitute  the  process  itself.  Thus  to  have  a  little  addition  of 
whole  numbers  at  frequent  intervals  is  not  enough  or  at  least  is  not  the  best 
that  we  can  do  by  way  of  drill  provision.  The  addition  examples  should 
be  so  constructed  that  if  the  combination  6  -\-  9  is  practiced  20  times  during 
the  year  those  20  practices  should  not  be  bunched  so  that  the  practice  will 
come  at  any  one  time.  The  addition  examples  should  be  so  built  that  the 
6  -\-  9  appears  as  evenly  and  widely  distributed  throughout  the  year  as  is 
reasonably  possible. 

(e)  Mixed  fundamentals  type  recommended — At  the  present  time, 
crucial  experimentation  is  lacking  to  prove  that  the  mixed  fundamental 
theory  of  drill  is  really  more  effective  than  the  isolation  theory.  However, 
there  are  certain  considerations  which  make  it  the  preferred  type  of  drill 
until  the  crucial  experimentation  is  performed.  Some  of  these  considera- 
tions are: 

1.  Life  does  not  bring  us  addition  on  Monday,  subtraction  on  Tuesday, 
division  on  Wednesday,  etc.  The  demands  that  life  puts  upon  arithmetical 
skill  are  to  be  able  to  use  the  several  processes  separately  and  to  be  able  to 
use  them  together,  in  any  order,  and  several  times  during  the  same  work 
period.  It  is  good  psychology  to  practice  a  total  skill  as  we  shall  have  to 
use  it.  The  total  hierarchy  of  arithmetic  habits  formed  by  the  work  of  the 
first  six  grades  will  be  better  organized  if  we  practice  at  one  time  the  total 


80  Department  oe  Superintendence 

hierarchy,  not  segments  of  it  in  isolation  one  from  the  other.  The  Mixed 
Fundamentals  type  of  drill  puts  together  the  things  that  belong  together. 
The  Isolation  type  of  drill  keeps  apart  the  things  that  should  not  be  kept 
apart. 

2.  From  the  observation  of  pupils  at  work  there  is  reason  to  suspect  that 
the  monotony  of  drill  work  is  greatly  relieved  by  a  change  of  process  used. 

3.  Many  of  the  more  recent  texts  in  arithmetic  are  using  the  Mixed 
Fundamental  type  of  drill  for  the  maintenance  of  skills  previously  learned. 
There  are  no  administrative  exigencies  which  make  the  use  of  the  Mixed 
Fundamentals  type  of  drill  impractical. 

4.  Breakdowns  in  any  one  process  due  to  forgetting  are  more  immediately 
located  since  the  mixed  fundamental  type  of  drill  organization  allows  all 
skills  to  be  passed  in  review  with  great  frequency. 

5.  Mixed  drills  tend  to  offset  the  practice  of  working  the  wrong  process 
in  taking  a  Standard  Test.  In  analysing  errors  made  on  standard  tests  it 
is  found  that  many  of  the  errors  are  not  ones  of  computation  at  all  but 
persistence  of  procedure.  Thus  if  the  first  three  examples  on  a  test  are 
addition  and  the  next  three  subtraction  there  is  a  tendency  to  add  instead 
of  subtract  in  the  three  subtraction  drills  in  regular  class  work.  If  from 
the  start  pupils  become  accustomed  to  treating  examples  in  drill  work  as 
units,  not  assuming  because  the  first  examples  are  in  addition  all  must  be, 
this  type  of  error  will  be  greatly  reduced. 

Summary  of  Specification  III.  A.  For  drill  to  maintain  skills  the  Mixed 
Fundamental  Type  of  organization  is  preferable. 

B.  Care  should  be  taken  to  insert  into  the  drills  examples  of  a  process  as 
soon  as  it  is  mastered.  No  process  should  ever  drop  out  of  the  drills  after 
it  is  inserted,  though  examples  of  the  easier  processes  may  become  increas- 
ingly infrequent. 

Specification  IV.     Drills  Should  Possess  Time  Limits 

(a)  Speed  a  secondary  consideration — Although  the  world  at  large  pays 
no  extra  bonus  for  phenomenal  speed  in  mathematical  computation  except 
to  vaudeville  performers,  it  does  penalize  excessive  slowness.  It  is  not 
within  the  province  of  the  elementary  school  to  develop  excessive  speed,  and 
there  need  not  be  major  emphasis  on  speed  in  elementary  school  arithmetic. 
Accuracy  is  an  objective  far  overshadowing  in  value  ambitions  of  spectacular 
speed.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  -however,  that  accuracy  and  slowness 
are  not  significantly  correlated  and  that  a  certain  measure  of  speed  is  not 
only  demanded  from  the  world  but  is  also  a  measure  of  attainment  in  and 
of  itself. 
*t  It- is  not  correct  to  think  of  drill  work  for  the  maintenance  of  skills  as  a 
process  to  be  done  accurately  in  any  amount*  of  time.  It  is  work  to  be  done 
accurately  within  a  reasonable  time.  Reasonable  time  is  to  be  defined  as 
that  amount  of  time  required  by  the  pupil  to  complete  the  work  when  he  is 
working  hard  and  economically  on  material  that  he  has  been  well  taught. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


81 


DRILL   NO.   I 

. 

1.  Subtract: 

2. 

3. 

4. 

94327 
65234 

437 
602 
591 
832 
475 

HXK  = 

.06 

5.01 

.23 

2.96 
5.72 

5.  Multiply: 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

432 

67 

10. 

M  +  »A*- 

37)2405 
11. 

18)2004 

7528 
X269 

12. 

6104 
X3724 

3K-2M  = 
14. 

Ksof  5  = 

13. 

15. 

9H 

%*.+K  = 

82)1435 

DRILL   NO. 

ii 

1.     214 
X5 

2 

12)264 

3.     64)768 

4.     *f-M  = 

5.     14409 
-5642 

6.     89176 
-  24589 

7 

43 
2 
5 

92 

70 
80 
10 
60 

169 
598 
798 
529 
699 
538 

8.     74)1184 

13 
1 

9.     2XH  = 

Find  the  area 
of  this  figure: 

10.     195 
X69 

11.       H4X3  = 

12. 

14.     864 

X628 

15.     2-H  = 

CD 

10  mi. 

DRILL   NO. 

III 

4. 

1. 

3. 

5. 

51)1122 

526 
540 
124 
521 
985 
400 

348 
X70 

14. 

70-6.30  = 

14332 
-5729 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

709 
X603 

228 
239 
548 
139 
747 
529 

H 

+  3  + 

H  = 

1 

723: 

12. 

H+2- 

13 

14. 

8'25->l6  = 

82  Department  of  Superintendence 

This  amount  of  time  varies  with  individual  pupils,  and  a  single  time 
standard  for  all  members  of  a  class  should  be  used  only  where  rating  devices 
allow  for  various  amounts  of  product.  To  ask  all  to  do  the  same  amount 
in  the  same  time  denies  most  of  the  important  facts  of  individual  differences 
and  such  standards  are  always  of  superficial  value. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  most  competent  superintendents  accept  the 
specification  for  drill  that  is  concerned  with  time  standards  the  question  is 
not,  "Shall  we  use  time  standards  in  drill  work?"  but,  "What  type  of 
time  standards  is  the  effective  type?"  The  latter  question  will  be  discussed 
in  this  chapter. 

(b)  Wrong  types  of  time  standards — Type  A.  To  use  any  variation  of 
the  following  type  of  time  standard  in  drill  work  is  wrong:  "See  how  long 
it  takes  you  to  work  the  following  exercise."  We  find  in  current  use  the 
above  type  of  time  standard  in  various  forms.  Your  committee  wishes  to 
oppose  the  use  of  this  type  for  the  following  reason. 

It  is  fundamentally  a  matter  of  curiosity  not  a  matter  of  educational 
direction.  If  a  child  finds  that  a  certain  exercise  takes  him  ten  minutes  to 
work  that  knowledge  may  or  may  not  be  of  some  interest  to  him.  But  the 
use  he  is  to  make  of  that  knowledge  is  not  forthcoming.  He  is  given  no 
information  to  use  in  making  such  judgments  as  these: 

Am  jf  working  too  slowly? 
Am  I  working  too  fast? 
Am  I  fast  for  my  grade? 
Am  I  slow  for  my  grade? 

The  information  asked  for  in  the  type  of  time  standard  above  leaves  the 
whole  matter  of  speed  of  performance  dangling  in  the  thin  air. 

Type  B.  Another  wrong  type  of  time  standard  is  any  variation  of  the 
following:  "Practice  upon  this  exercise  until  you  can  do  it  correctly  in  ten 
minutes." 

There  are  several  reasons  why  this  type  of  time  standard  in  any  of  its 
many  disguises  should  not  be  tolerated.    Among  these  reasons  are: 

1.  The  time  standard  given  is  rarely  a  properly  derived  standard.  Such 
a  time  standard  cannot  be  derived  from  the  demands  of  the  business  world 
and  thus  be  a  minimum  requirement  for  the  commercial  use  of  skills  built 
in  the  elementary  school,  because  the  speed  requirements  of  business  have 
never  been  determined  except  in  extremely  local  situations.  Probably  there 
are  no  speed  requirements  of  business  widespread  enough  to  be  useful  in  this 
connection. 

2.  The  time  standard  given  in  this  way  is  seldom  properly  derived  from 
the  performances  of  pupils  in  the  school.  The  amount  of  genuinely 
standardized  drill  work  is  surprisingly  limited.  Time  standards  for  single 
drill  units  have  usually  been  determined  from  the  average  performance  of 
a  few  classes — often  from  a  very  restricted  area.  And,  while  in  all  proba- 
bility there  are  some  time  standards  in  some  textbooks  that  have  been 
actually  determined  by  experimentation,  the  sampling  area  used  has  often 


The  Third  Yearbook  83 


been  so  restricted  that  the  standard  resulting  from  improper  sampling  has 
vitiated  the  use  of  these  for  even  computing  class  averages  on  a  country- 
wide basis. 

3.  A  single  time  standard  can  give  a  true  measure  of  nothing  but  class 
performance  and  then  it  is  a  function  of  the  type  of  teaching  and  drill  work 
that  the  particular  classes  used.  To  set  up  as  a  generalized  time  standard 
in  drill,  a  time  limit  based  on  classes  whcih  give  25  minutes  a  day  to  arith- 
metic, should  be  quite  useless  for  classes  which  give  40  minutes  a  day  to 
arithmetic.  Time  standards  derived  from  classes  which  use  an  outworn 
type  of  drill  organization  would  be  too  easy  for  classes  which  use  more 
effective  types  of  drill  organization. 

4.  The  main  reason  why  a  single  time  standard  such  as  any  variation  of 
Type  B  must  in  necessity  be  pedagogically  wrong  is  that  its  use  is  restricted 
to  the  mythical  "average"  child.  Suppose  it  were  known  that  the  average 
performance  of  all  the  fifth  grades  in  the  country  upon  a  certain  exercise 
was  exactly  ten  minutes.  To  use  this  knowledge  by  telling  fifth  grade 
pupils  to  practice  upon  that  exercise  until  they  could  do  it  in  ten  minutes 
would  be  a  fine  example  of  educational  blundering.  (And  the  fact  that 
many  drills  now  use  a  single  time  standard  does  not  make  it  any  less  of  a 
blunder.  Universality  of  use  in  a  growing  science  like  education  is  no  proof 
of  merit.) 

A  single  time  standard  is  a  blunder,  for  it  refuses  to  use  most  of  the 
important  facts  of  individual  differences.  Thus,  a  properly  derived  single 
average  time  standard  is  useful  to  only  pupils  of  average  ability.  It  is 
positively  harmful  to  superior  pupils  because  it  says  to  them,  "Practice  upon 
this  exercise  until  you  can  do  it  in  the  time  it  takes  pupils  of  less  ability  to 
do  it.  Thus,  bind  to  yourself  habits  and  ideals  of  work  far  below  your  true 
capacity.  Form  habits  of  working  at  half  effort  so  that  when  you  get  out 
in  the  world  if  you  are  ambitious  you  will  have  many  habits  as  the  result 
of  your  education  that  you  will  have  to  break." 

It  tells  the  more  limited  pupils  to  do  what  they  cannot  do  at  all  or  which 
they  can  do  only  by  expending  an  unwise  amount  of  time.  To  ask  a  pupil 
to  practice  on  an  exercise  until  he  can  do  it  correctly  in  ten  minutes  is  mis- 
education,  if  the  child  is  significantly  below  the  average  in  ability.  It  may 
be  useful  in  the  sense  that  it  tells  the  slow  pupil  with  cruel  bluntness  that 
he  is  limited.  And,  such  knowledge  may  be  of  value.  It  is  vicious  in  that 
it  presents  to  the  slow  pupil  situations  which  are  inveterately  discouraging 
thus  creating  a  negative  attitude  toward  school,  which  hurts  in  subtle  as 
well  as  overt  ways.  It  would  be  as  sensible  to  tell  a  plump  45  year-old  lady 
to  jump  5  feet  from  a  standing  position  because  that  was  the  average  dis- 
tance that  all  adults  can  jump,  as  it  is  to  tell  a  limited  pupil  to  try  to  work 
an  exercise  in  ten  minutes  because  that  was  the  time  in  which  the  average 
pupil  could  work  it. 

Type  C.  Another  misuse  of  the  time  standard  technique  is  to  ask  a  child 
to  practice  upon  an  exercise  until  he  can  do  it  rapidly,  or  as  fast  as  he  thinks 


84  Department  of  Superintendence 

he  ought  to  do  it.  On  a  moment's  reflection  it  will  be  seen  that  such  vague 
standards  as  "rapidly"  or  any  variation  of  undetermined  amounts  of  time  are 
absurd.  Yet  a  large  fraction  of  pupils  at  the  present  time  are  using  just 
such  senseless  time  standards. 

In  the  long  run,  competent  superintendents  will  not  use  time  standards 
in  any  form  apart  from  accuracy  standards,  also.  Since  100  per  cent 
accuracy  within  a  time  standard  is  a  procedure  that  carries  with  it  too 
many  disadvantages  to  make  it  practical,  this  report  will  delay  positive  sug- 
gestions concerning  time  standards  until  the  subject  of  accuracy  standards 
has  been  discussed. 

Summary  of  Specification  IV .  Any  variations  of  the  following  types  of 
Time  Standards  are  either  vicious,  or  futile,  or  less  useful  than  other  types 
of  time  standards.  They  should  not  be  used.  Correct  methods  are  given 
later. 

Type  A.  See  how  long  it  takes  you  to  do  this  exercise. 

Type  B.  Practice  upon  this  exercise  until  you  can  do  it  in  ten  minutes. 

Type  C.  Practice  upon  this  exercise  until  you  can  do  it  rapidly. 

Specification  V.    Drills  Should  Use  Accuracy  Standards 

(a)  The  wrong  way  to  use  the  100  per  cent  accuracy  standard — It 
would  seem  at  first  glance  that  the  matter  of  accuracy  standards  is  very 
simple,  because  we  need  just  one  standard — namely,  100  per  cent  for  all 
work.  However,  the  matter  of  accuracy  standards  is  not  so  simple  as 
this.    We  can  isolate  the  factors  to  be  considered  by  a  few  illustrations: 

Suppose  we  tell  a  child  to  practice  upon  a  list  of  examples  until  he  can 
do  it  with  100  per  cent  accuracy.  If  this  means  until  you  can  take  the  list 
as  a  whole  and  work  it  all  through  without  error,  the  direction  is  an  unwise 
one.     Not  unwise  theoretically,  but  unwise  in  the  practical  situation. 

Consider  the  following  typical  case : 

Let  the  exercise  contain  20  examples.  The  first  time  the  child  works  the 
exercise  he  misses  (for  illustration)  examples  8,  14,  and  19.  Since  he  did 
not  get  100  per  cent  accuracy  on  the  first  trial  he  must  repeat  the  exercise 
as  a  whole.  This  time  he  misses  only  example  19.  Since  he  did  not  get  100 
per  cent  accuracy,  he  must  work  the  whole  exercise  again.  This  time  he 
gets  all  the  examples  correct.  He  would  then  pass  on  to  the  next  card  if 
he  is  using  a  drill  service  which  gives  directions  for  100  per  cent  accuracy 
before  leaving  a  card  or  goes  on  in  the  text  if  the  drill  is  in  the  text. 

Such  repetition  involves  doing  three  times  examples  which  the  pupil  got 
correct  on  the  first  trial.  This  approximates  a  type  of  wasteful  over- 
practice  opposition  to  which  has  been  much  neglected  in  current  thinking 
about  drill  organization.  It  is  poor  investment  of  time  to  practice  on  what 
the  pupil  needs  no  practice  upon.  If  in  order  to  practice  upon  examples 
done  incorrectly,  a  pupil  must  repeat  much  work  that  he  already  has 
mastered,  we  cannot  hope  for  the  best  interest  in  drill  work  for  much  of  it  is 
obviously  futile.     If  we  take  the  time  to  repeat  correct  work  in  order  to 


The  Third  Yearbook  85 

wipe  out  errors  in  a  few  examples — that  is,  do  all  the  work  correct  at  any 
one  time,  we  expend  much  time  in  repeating  correct  work.  This  would 
not  be  both  harmful  and  silly,  but  only  silly  if  the  pupil  was  gifted  with 
eternal  life  for  elementary  school  education.  But,  with  the  crowded  curri- 
culum of  the  present  time  we  must  save  even  minutes  wherever  we  can. 
We  waste  time  when  we  demand  100  per  cent  accuracy  at  any  one  sitting 
in  drill  work  through  the  demand  that  everything  must  be  done  correctly 
at  once. 

Further,  a  more  serious  charge  may  be  brought  against  100  per  cent 
accuracy  on  a  complete  unit  of  work  at  any  one  time.  While  not  theoretic- 
ally necessary,  it  is  often  the  actual  fact  that  when  all  the  work  is  repeated 
the  attention  of  the  pupil  is  centered  on  getting  the  whole  exercise  correct 
at  any  one  time  and  the  tendency  is  away  from  intensive  study  of  particular 
errors  made.  Thus,  correctness  often  comes  through  trial  and  error,  rather 
than  from  enlightened  study  of  specific  errors  made.  The  whole  spirit  of 
100  per  cent  accuracy  of  the  whole  exercise  is  to  try  the  whole  exercise 
again  tomorrow,  and  due  to  scant  time  it  too  often  means  plunging  right 
into  the  whole  exercise,  doing  over  many  examples  already  done  correctly 
but  omitting  a  study  of  errors  made. 

The  correct  procedure  is  not  to  repeat  the  whole  exercise  but  correct  at 
once  any  mistakes  made  on  the  first  trial  and  practice  correctly  at  least  three 
times  the  examples  missed.  Without  emphasis  on  the  correction  of  errors, 
as  specific  errors  to  be  studied  by  themselves,  practice  on  error  rather  than 
practice  in  correctness  is  often  the  fact.  One  hundred  per  cent  accuracy 
standards  on  whole  exercises,  as  actually  used  in  drill  work,  are  not  effective. 

Such  a  technique  of  accuracy  standards"  involves : 

1.  Much  wasteful  time  over-practice  through  repetition  of  correct  work. 

2.  Reduces  interest  through  the  futility  of  doing  over  what  was  done 
correctly. 

3.  Takes  the  attention  away  from  an  intensive  study  of  specific  errors. 

(b)  Time  and  accuracy  combined — Standards  should  be  in  terms  of 
ratings  made  on  first  trial  with  generous  time  allowance.  Obviously  time 
standards  without  accuracy  standards  are  to  be  looked  at  with  suspicion. 
Also,  accuracy  standards  with  no  time  standards  fail  to  take  care  of 
important  aspects  of  competent  work.  The  following  combination  of  time 
and  accuracy  standards  is  suggested  as  an  adequate  technique  for  the  par- 
ticularizing of  specifications  of  drill  organization  relative  to  standards. 

(c)  The  three  factors  of  combined  accuracy  and  time  standards — Factor 
one — A  time  limit.  This  is  to  be  generous.  It  is  to  be  experimentally  deter- 
mined. It  should  be  such  that  more  than  half  the  class  can  finish  the  drill 
in  the  time  given.  No  rewards  are  offered  for  spectacular  speed.  No 
penalties  for  moderate  rates  of  work.  The  emphasis  is  taken  from  speed 
and  placed  on  power. 

Factor  two.  A  rating  in  terms  of  number  examples  correct  in  a  given 
amount  of  time. 


86  Department  of  Superintendence 

Factor  three.  Emphasis  should  be  on  correction  of  specific  errors,  not  on 
repetition  of  work  correct,  as  well  as  wrong. 

(d)  A  definite  technique  described — Consider  the  possibilities  of  the 
following  type  of  standards  organized  for  each  unit  of  drill  work. 

(Adapted  from  drill  material.     Permission  granted  by  the  publisher.) 

PRACTICE  ON  THE  FUNDAMENTALS 

Self-testing  Drill  No.  12.  Number  your  paper  before  the  signal 
"Go!"  is  given.  Wherever  possible,  save  copying  by  placing  your  paper 
right  below  any  example.    Copy  only  when  necessary. 

You  will  be  allowed  exactly  20  minutes.  Work  as  fast  as  you  can  with- 
out making  mistakes.    Do  the  examples  and  problems  in  order. 

Try  to  beat  all  your  past  records.  Use  your  work  on  the  first  trial  for 
rating.     Rate  yourself  by  the  standards  below. 

There  follows  a  drill  unit.  In  this  instance  it  is  built  on  the  Mixed 
Fundamental  Theory,  with  distributed  practice.  At  the  end  of  the  drill 
come  the  standards  as  follows: 

Standards. 

Number  correct  0     1-2     3-4     5-6     7-8     9-10     11     12     13     14     15 
Rating 01         2        3        4         5         6789      10 

After  you  have  recorded  your  rating,  correct  at  once  any  mistake  you 
may  have  made. 

(e)  Advantage  of  the  suggested  technique — The  Standards  organization 
above  possess  these  possibilities: 

1.  Assuming  that  the  rating  device  uses  facts  determined  by  statistically 
sound  experimentation,  provision  is  made  for  measuring  amount  of  correct 
product  per  time  allowance. 

Since  ratings  from  0  to  10  are  given,  provision  is  made  for  individual 
differences.  Thus,  a  rating  of  6  might  be  laid  down  as  minimum  perform- 
ance to  pass,  but  good  work  brings  tangible  evidence  of  merit  through 
higher  ratings.  The  rating  scheme  allows  a  pupil  to  know  not  only  that 
he  is  doing  well  or  poorly,  but  also  to  know  how  well  or  how  poorly  he  is 
doing. 

2.  The  above  device  allows  ratings  on  drill  units  and  thus  the  drill  units 
themselves  to  be  a  continuous  process  throughout  the  year.  While  it  would 
be  practically  impossible  to  construct  tests  of  identical  difficulty  for  a  year's 
work,  yet  drill  units  can  be  constructed  sufficiently  equal  in  difficulty  to  use 
a  rating  device  like  the  one  above.  By  proper  treatment  of  the  pupil's  per- 
formances used  in  making  the  standards,  a  rating  of  five  can  mean  the 
same  thing  throughout  the  year.  Thus,  a  rating  of  5  on  drill  2  can  mean 
the  same  thing  as  a  rating  of  5  on  Drill  12  or  22  or  32.  A  pupil  can  keep 
a  record  of  his  progress  on  drills  in  an  orderly  and  a  meaningful  fashion.  A 
rating  of  1  or  2  or  4  or  6,  etc.,  can  always  mean  the  same'  thing  because 


The  Third  Yearbook  87 

the  ratings  would  not  be  computed  in  percentage  of  work  done  correctly 
which  would  involve  a  long  series  of  drills  of  identical  difficulty  not  only 
for  each  drill  as  a  whole  but  for  small  parts  of  each  drill.  The  ratings 
can  be  computed,  as  they  were  in  the  drills  used  as  illustration,  in  terms 
of  the  number  of  pupils  getting  varying  numbers  of  examples  correct  on 
each  drill.  Thus,  a  rating  of  6  might  mean  the  getting  correct  of  11  ex- 
amples in  Drill  12,  but  a  rating  of  6  might  mean  getting  correct  only  10 
examples  on  drill  22  if  adequate  experimentation  showed  that  Drill  22  was 
slightly  harder. 

3.  By  using  a  device  like  the  one  above  a  pupil  works  on  drill,  knowing 
at  the  time  of  effort  how  well  he  did  in  rather  exact  terms.  By  keeping  his 
record  of  his  ratings  from  drill  to  drill,  he  can  form  an  honest  and  statisti- 
cally correct  estimate  of  his  progress  through  the  year.  If  he  gets  low  rat- 
ings at  first  but  improves,  his  ratings  will  show  him  that  fact.  If  he  does 
well  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  and  begins  to  loaf,  that  fact  will  be  re- 
vealed by  the  use  of  the  type  of  standard  organization  here  suggested. 

(f)  The  use  of  the  progress  chart — 1.  By  using  a  progress  chart  such  as 
is  often  used  a  pupil  can  see  for  himself  what  he  is  doing  on  drill  work 
as  the  year  goes  on.  He  can,  in  fact,  begin  to  think  in  pretty  definite  terms 
about  his  work  and  thus  in  some  measure  at  least  become  responsible  for 
his  own  progress. 

2.  The  use  of  such  standards  is  by  no  means  limited  to  its  effect  through 
definiteness  upon  the  interest  of  the  child.  Granted  that  the  standards  are 
true  ones,  they  are  immediately  useful  for  grading  pupils.  They  also 
organize  the  work  of  the  class  in  such  form  that  the  superintendent  can  at 
a  glance  see  what  any  given  class  is  doing,  not  only  in  the  estimation  of  a 
teacher  which  might  be  slightly  erroneous,  not  only  from  his  own  observa- 
tion, which  might  be  slightly  hurried,  not  only  in  terms  of  standard  tests 
which  are  given  at  infrequent  intervals  but  in  measurable  objective  terms 
from  normal  class  work.  Such  accurate  data  admit  of  a  type  of  supervision 
that  many  wish  to  do  but  cannot  do  for  want  of  the  essential  data. 

3.  Further,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  type  of  standards  suggested  above 
do  not  require  the  repeating  of  the  whole  exercise  including  examples  done 
correctly.  On  the  contrary  it  places  the  emphasis  on  correcting  at  once  the 
actual  mistakes  made.  This  gives  an  opportunity  though  by  no  means 
guarantees  that  pupils  will  be  led  to  the  study  of  specific  errors  made  as 
opposed  to  the  more  or  less  repeating  of  whole  units  of  work. 

4.  By  having  the  ratings  made  on  the  first  trial,  repetition  of  error  is 
avoided.  No  practice  "in  the  dark"  is  called  for.  The  procedure  of  the 
standard  test  technique  is  approximated. 

The  above  technique,  while  not  perfect,  makes  greater  uses  of  the  strong 
points  in  the  test  and  standardization  movement,  and  avoids  more  of  the 
weak  points  of  improper  uses  of  standards  than  any  other  method  that  ha? 
yet  come  to  the  writer's  notice. 


Department  of  Superintendence 


(g)  The  cost  is  justifiable — There  is  one  weak  point  in  the  use  of  this 
device.  To  build  correct  standards  in  terms  of  several  ratings  instead  of  a 
single  standard  involves  a  huge  expenditure  of  time  and  money,  provided  of 
course  that  the  standards  are  properly  obtained.  In  fact,  the  use  of  such 
standards  means  the  taking  of  carefully  constructed  standardized  tests  and 
using  them  as  drill  units.  As  far  as  the  writer  knows,  this  has  been  done 
but  once.  Dr.  G.  M.  Ruch,  of  the  University  of  Iowa,  has  standardized 
64  drills  for  the  fifth  grade  and  60  drills  for  the  sixth  grade,  using  the 
rating  and  standards  technique  herein  described. 

Summary  of  Specification  V.  One  hundred  per  cent  accuracy  standards 
as  applied  to  a  list  of  examples  are  unwise  for  the  following  reasons : 

(a)  They  involve  wasteful  overpractice  on  examples  done  correctly  the 
first  time. 

(b)  They  do  not  provide  careful  study  of  specific  errors. 

(c)  They  reduce  interest  because  of  useless  repetitions. 

Factors  of  Combined  Time  and  Accuracy  Standards 

(a)  Time  limits  are  to  be  generous,  placing  chief  emphasis  on  accuracy 
rather  than  on  speed  alone. 

(b)  Rating  should  be  in  terms  of  examples  done  correctly  in  a  given 
amount  of  time. 

(c)  Emphasis  should  be  on  correction  of  specific  errors. 

Provision  should  be  made  for  self-testing  drills  to  be  given  once  a  week 
rather  than  two  or  three  times  a  year.  These  should  be  accompanied  by  a 
rating  scale  and  progress  chart. 

(a)  Provision  is  made  for  individual  differences. 

(b)  A  given  rating  on  one  drill  can  be  made  approximately  of  the  same 
value  on  all  drills,  and  so  throughout  all  the  drills  for  the  year,  thus  giving 
the  pupil  a  continuous  standard  to  rate  himself  on. 

(c)  The  pupil  is  then  motivated  by  awareness  of  success. 

(d)  Dependable  data  are  made  available  for  the  teacher  and  supervisor. 

Specification  VI.     Examples  in  a  Drill  Should  Come  in  Order  of  Difficulty 

(a)  Range  of  difficulty  commensurate  with  range  of  abilities — Since  the 
typical  class  harbors  pupils  of  widely  varying  ability,  each  drill  should  pro- 
vide some  work  that  all,  or  almost  all,  pupils  can  do.  It  should  also  pro- 
vide some  work  that  will  tax  the  ability  of  even  the  ablest  pupil.  By 
arranging  the  individual  examples  in  each  drill,  from  easiest  to  hardest,  the 
slowest  pupil  is  able  to  get  something  from  each  class  exercise.  It  is  equally 
important  that  the  ablest  pupils  be  given  more  often  than  they  are  a  little 
work  that  is  a  worthy  foe  for  their  steel.  Up  to  the  present  time,  drill 
work  has  been  designed  for  the  more  limited  pupils. 

(b)  Easy  exa?nples  should  include  more  than  one  process — It  is  wise  in 
taking  care  of  this  specification  to  make  sure  that  all  the  easy  problems  are 


The  Third  Yearbook  89 


not  concerned  with  one  process.  We  should  make  sure  that  limited  pupils 
receive  practice  on  their  own  level  in  all  the  processes  they  have  learned  up 
to  the  time  of  any  particular  drill. 

Specification  VII.    Drill  Work  Should  Include  Verbal  Problems 

(a)  Problem  solving  should  not  be  isolated — It  is  unwise  to  keep  apart 
those  things  that  ought  to  work  together.  The  ultimate  justification  for  all 
drill  work  is  the  beneficial  results  it  has  upon  solving  problems  in  contrast 
to  examples,  for  life  is  concerned  with  problems,  not  mere  drill  examples. 
If  all  drill  work  is  kept  persistently  apart  from  practice  in  problem  solving, 
the  pupil  does  not  operate  together  the  skills  which  ought  to  operate  to- 
gether. 

Crucial  experimentation  to  support  this  contention  is  lacking.  But  in 
the  absence  of  such  experimentation,  it  is  better  to  practice  good  instead  of 
poor  theory. 

The  samples  of  drill  organization  in  Appendix  C  show  verbal  problems 
as  organic  parts  of  drill  units. 

Summary  of  Specification  VII.  Verbal  problems  should  be  included  as 
organic  parts  of  drill  units.     Problem  solving  should  not  be  isolated. 

Specification  VIII.    Drills  Should  Facilitate  the  Diagnosis  of  Specific  Error 
for  the  Facilitation  of  Remedial  Work 

(a)  Remedial  work  should  be  specific — In  remedial  work,  it  is  almost 
essential  to  drill  on  the  specific  skills  that  are  weak  in  contrast  to  drill  on 
both  the  strong  and  weak  in  an  indiscriminate  manner. 

(b)  The  waste  of  indiscriminate  drill — Indiscriminate  drill  is  indulged 
in  when  the  directions  call  for  the  repetition  of  all  the  drill  including 
examples  done  correctly  as  well  as  those  done  incorrectly.  It  might  be 
urged  by  those  who  show  a  marked  lack  of  insight  into  practical  school 
conditions  that  the  redoing  of  examples  that  possess  no  difficulty  to  a  child 
is  not  a  cause  of  criticism,  because  such  practice  will  not  do  any  harm,  may 
do  good  in  general,  and  the  pupil  has  plenty  of  time  anyway. 

All  of  these  defenses  are  false.  The  repeating  of  work  done  correctly 
does  positive  harm,  if  continued.  No  self-respecting  pupil  of  even  third 
grade  judgment  can  have  much  respect  or  loyalty  to  a  drill  service  which 
calls  for  the  same  treatment  of  correct  work  that  it  does  for  incorrect 
work — namely,  to  do  it  over.  A  negative  set  toward  drill  work  n  the  part 
of  many  pupils  is  not  a  symptom  of  contrariness.  It  is  a  symptom  of  com- 
mon sense.  It  also  tends  to  take  the  attention  away  from  specific  errors 
which,  incidentally,  are  the  only  important  type  of  errors  pupils  make.  The 
argument  that  there  is  plenty  of  time  anyway  needs  no  refutation  here. 

(c)  The  suggested  standard  technique  facilitates  remedial  work — The 
drill  organization  defended  in  specifications  V  and  VI,  which  have  the 
ratings  made  on  the  first  trial,  avoids  the  blunder  of  repeating  work  done 
correctly  and  tends  to  center  attention  on  errors  made.     This  organiza- 


90  Department  of  Superintendence 

tion  approximates  the  conditions  under  which  standard  tests  are  given.  The 
child  does  not  keep  working  on  a  unit  until  he  can  do  it  all  correctly.  He 
makes  his  rating  and  then  corrects  his  errors.  He  can  make  a  better  rating 
on  the  next  drill,  more  surely  by  a  study  of  his  errors  in  the  time  available 
than  he  can  if  he  spends  a  major  portion  of  his  time  in  repeating  work 
already  done  correctly. 

(d)  Hard  aspects,  as  well  as  complete  examples,  should  be  present  in 
drills.  We  can,  however,  provide  other  measures  for  remedial  work.  In 
drill  construction,  it  is  not  compelling  to  have  only  total  processes  presented. 
To  the  extent  that  we  know  the  particular  hard  spots  in  processes,  we  can 
drill  on  these  in  isolation.  While  the  carry  over  to  the  total  process  is 
probably  not  100  per  cent  perfect,  it  may  be  sufficient  to  pay  when  the  time 
factor  is  given  due  weight.  Just  as  we  learn  bit  by  bit,  so  we  can  drill  bit 
by  bit,  especially  on  the  hard  bits. 

(e)  The  teacher  s  cue  for  remedial  work.  If  a  teacher  will  notice  what 
types  of  examples  are  being  missed  most  frequently,  he  can  make  a  good 
guess  as  to  what  total  process  needs  special  drill  the  most.  If,  in  addition, 
the  crucial  or  hard  spots  on  the  several  processes  are  inserted  in  the  drills 
he  can  locate  with  useful  but  not  complete  exactness  whatever  part  of  a 
total  process  needs  special  attention. 

The  last  word  in  remedial  work  in  arithmetic  will,  however,  not  be 
spoken  until  a  whole  series  of  studies  on  that  complex  subject  has  been 
made,  based  upon  pupils  who  have  had  good  drill  from  the  start.  This 
will  be  a  matter  of  some  years. 

Comments  on  remedial  work  to  follow  systematic  drill  work  are  con- 
siderably compressed  in  this  report  for  two  reasons.  First,  it  is  not  at 
present  known  what  errors  are  due  to  genuine  learning  difficulty  and  what 
errors  are  due  to  faulty  construction  of  drill.  It  is  probable  that  much 
need  for  remedial  work  lies  not  in  giving  pupils  more  drill  but  in  giving 
them  better  drill  from  the  first.  If  errors  are  due  to  the  wrong  experiences 
and  lack  of  experiences  in  systematic  drill,  then  the  main  drive  upon 
remedial  work  should  be  upon  the  reconstruction  of  drill  work  from  the 
start.  There  is  some  ground  for  the  contention  that  much  of  the  remedial 
work  now  needed  will  no  longer  be  needed  when  drill  work  meets  more 
adequately  the  specifications  suggested  in  this  report. 

We  are  not  concerned  in  the  science  of  education  with  the  planning  of 
remedial  work  for  pupils  who  have  not  had  the  correct  experience  with 
numbers  in  their  systematic  instruction  and  drill.  We  are  concerned  with 
remedial  work  for  errors  which  persist  after  the  pupil  has  had  the  best  type 
of  drill  available.  What  these  persistent  errors  are  will  not  be  known  until 
a  sufficiently  large  number  of  pupils  has  had  several  years  of  drill  which 
meet  proper  specifications. 

The  second  reason  why  remedial  work  is  not  stressed  in  this  report  is 
that  practically  all  that  is  now  known  about  remedial  work  is  contained  in 
Dr.  Osburn's  latest  book,  Corrective  Arithmetic.    Since  most  of  the  readers 


The  Third  Yearbook  91 


of  this  chapter  will  no  doubt  also  read  Dr.  Osburn's  book,  there  is  little 
need  for  extended  treatment  of  remedial  work  here. 

Summary  of  Specification  VIII.  Directions  for  drills  and  the  organ- 
ization of  standards  for  drill  should  direct  the  attention  to  specific  errors. 

Teachers  should  note  which  process  is  being  missed  most  frequently  in 
drill  work.    Special  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  this  process. 

Specific  work  on  the  crucial  parts  of  a  total  process  should  be  inserted 
in  units  of  drills,  so  that  guidance  may  be  given  to  both  teacher  and  pupils 
as  to  what  specific  weakness  may  exist. 

IV.  What  is  the  Best  Procedure  for  Building  up  Ability  to  Handle 
Concrete  or  Reasoning  Problems? 

Isolated  reasoning  problems  are  not  meeting  the  demands  of  life  as 
it  is.  Under  life  conditions,  problems  are  solved  when  the  individual 
is  keen  as  to  consequences.  Any  calculating  is  a  small  detail  in  a  larger 
unified  process.  The  condition  is  being  met  in  the  schools  by  building  up 
pupil  experience,  by  confining  number  work  in  the  lower  grades  to  actual 
needs,  and  by  providing  artificial  life  situations  for  the  intermediate  and 
upper  grades  such  as  conducting  a  cafeteria,  managing  a  department  store 
sale,  or  working  out  large  unit  problems  in  any  form.  This  whole  matter 
of  reasoning  is  connected  with  the  problem  of  larger  units  of  instruction 
properly  motivated  and  the  building  up  of  pupil  experience.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  in  the  past,  much  time  has  been  spent  on  meaningless  puzzle 
and  academic  material.  The  result  has  been  a  minimum  amount  of  under- 
standing and  a  maximum  amount  of  discouragement  for  the  children. 

Following  is  a  brief  summary  of  available  studies  on  reasoning  in  arith- 
metic : 

STUDY  NO.  23.  Davies,  G.  R.  "Elements  of  arithmetical  ability." 
Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Vol.  V,  1914.     pp.  131-140, 

The  purpose  of  this  investigation  was  to  determine  to  what  extent  com- 
putation, reasoning,  visualizing,  memory  span  and  "mental  arithmetic"  are 
related  to  each  other  and  to  what  extent  each  is  related  to  "general  effi- 
ciency" in  arithmetic.  Special  tests  were  designed  to  give  measures  of  com- 
putation, reasoning,  visualizing,  memory  span,  and  mental  arithmetic.  The 
term  "grades"  in  arithmetic  was  used  as  measures  of  general  efficiency. 
Data  were  obtained  from  two  adult  classes  numbering  29  and  32  persons. 
By  statistical  methods  (rank  order  correlations)  the  following,  among  lesser 
important  conclusions,  were  arrived  at :  There  is  ( 1 )  a  close  relationship 
between  the  skills  in  the  four  fundamental  operations;  (2)  a  rather  close 
relationship  between  computation  and  term  grades  (r=0.44±.10)  ;  (3)  a 
very  slight  relationship  between  visualization  and  memory,  memory  span 
and  "mental"  arithmetic,  memory  span  and  visualization;  (4)  a  rather  high 
relationship  between  visualization  and  term  grades,  and  between  visualiza- 
tion and  reasoning;  (5)  a  very  slight  relationship  between  computation  and 


92  Department  of  Superintendence 

reasoning;    (6)   a  close  relationship  between  reasoning  and  term  grades; 
and  (7)  a  very  great  variation  among  the  pupils  in  each  ability. 

The  investigation  lacks  reliability  because  of  the  small  number  of  persons 
from  whom  data  were  obtained.  The  principal  conclusion  calls  attention 
to  the  close  connection  between  reasoning  and  general  efficiency  in  arith- 
metic. 

STUDY  NO.  24.  Newcomb,  R.  S.  "Teaching  pupils  how  to  solve 
problems  in  arithmetic."  Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  23,  1922-23, 
pp.  183-9. 

Mr.  R.  S.  Newcomb,  of  the  East  Central  State  Teachers  College,  Ada, 
Oklahoma,  compared  the  effectiveness  of  the  "usual  manner"  of  solving 
problems  with  a  method  that  emphasized  a  "careful,  systematic  and  log- 
ical" procedure.  He  chose  four  classes,  of  seventh  and  eighth  grade  pupils 
to  whom  he  taught  the  proposed  method.  Two  other  classes  were  used 
as  the  check  or  control  group.  The  initial  and  final  ability  of  both  groups 
were  measured  by  the  Stone  Reasoning  Test  2. 

In  the  "careful,  systematic  and  logical"  procedure  the  pupils  were  in- 
structed to  (1)  understand  each  word  in  the  problem,  (2)  read  the  prob- 
lem intelligently,  (3)  add,  subtract,  multiply,  and  divide  with  speed  and 
accuracy,  (4)  determine  what  is  given  in  the  problem,  (5)  determine  what 
is  required,  (6)  select  the  different  processes  to  be  used  in  the  solution 
and  the  order  in  which  these  processes  are  to  be  used,  ( 7 )  plan  the  solution 
wisely  and  systematically,  and  (8)  check  readily. 

After  "twenty  carefully  prepared  problems  of  graded  difficulty"  had 
been  taught  to  the  four  classes  comprising  the  experimental  group,  one 
each  day,  Stone  Reasoning  Test  2  was  repeated.  The  test  results  showed 
that  the  experimental  group  had  made  appreciably  greater  improvement 
both  in  accuracy  of  reasoning  and  speed  in  reasoning.  The  experiment 
suggests  that  pupils  do  profit  from  instruction  in  the  method  or  technique 
of  problem  solving. 

STUDY  NO.  25.  Banting,  G.  O.  "The  elimination  of  difficulties  in 
reasoning,"  Second  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Elementary  School  Prin- 
cipals.    Wash.,  D.  C.     Department  of  Elementary  School  Principals. 

A  study  of  pupils'  difficulties  in  reasoning  was  made  in  the  Waukesha 
(Wisconsin)  schools  by  G.  O.  Banting  in  1922.  The  causes  of  failure  or 
of  inability  to  reason  correctly  were  found  to  be  lack  of  general  ability 
in  silent  reading,  lack  of  familiarity  with  technical  terms  in  arithmetic, 
carelessness  in  reading,  lack  of  the  experiences  necessary  to  understand 
the  "setting"  of  the  problem,  inadequate  skill  in  computing,  lack  of  knowl- 
edge of  such  essential  facts  as  tables  of  weights  and  measures,  inability 
to  see  the  relationships  in  the  problem  so  as  to  choose  the  proper  operation, 
inability  to  do  reflective  thinking,  and  the  like.  In  cooperation  with  the 
teachers,  Mr.  Banting  devised  corrective  or  remedial  devices  for  each  of 
these  difficulties.     For  example,  in  teaching  pupils  to  associate  the  proper 


The  Third  Yearbook:  93 

operation  with  the  context  of  the  problem,  easy  one  step,  two  step,  and 
three  step  problems,  to  which  the  pupils  responded  by  giving  the  appropriate 
operation  (or  operations)  were  designed;  pupils  were  practiced  in  making 
up  problems  in  which  a  given  operation  (or  a  combination  of  operations) 
was  used ;  and  lists  of  miscellaneous  problems  were  analyzed,  so  as  to  dis- 
cover the  problems  whose  solution  required  a  given  operation  (or  a  com- 
bination of  operations).  Mr.  Banting's  study  is  reprinted  in  Educational 
Bulletin,  Number  5,  recently  published  by  the  Minneapolis  public  schools. 
This  bulletin  contains  excellent  suggestions  for  teaching  arithmetic. 

STUDY  NO.  26.  Stevenson,  P.  R.  "Increasing  the  ability  of  pupils  to 
solve  arithmetic  problems."  Education  Research  Bulletin  (Ohio  State  Uni- 
versity)   Vol.   Ill,   No.   13. 

P.  R.  Stevenson  measured  the  increase  in  ability  to  solve  arithmetic 
problems  that  followed  twelve  weeks  of  remedial  instruction  in  the  tech- 
nique of  problem-solving.  During  the  first,  second,  and  third  of  the 
twelve  weeks  the  pupils  were  taught  to  analyze  textbook  problems.  Many 
types  of  problems  containing  data  from  actual  life  situations  were  solved 
during  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  weeks.  The  problems  were  collected 
by  the  pupils.  During  the  third  three-week  period  the  pupils  solved  prob- 
lems "without  numbers."  The  last  of  the  three-week  periods  was  devoted 
to  a  study  of  the  difficult  words  that  appear  in  textbook  problems.  As 
a  result  of  the  twelve  weeks'  instruction,  the  increase  in  power  to  solve 
problems,  as  measured  by  the  Buckingham  Scale  and  the  Stevenson  Prob- 
lem Analysis  Test,  was  approximately  equal  to  the  gains  that  pupils  nor- 
mally make  during  an  entire  year.  Stevenson's  data  showed  that  the 
slower  pupils  made  the  greater  gains. 

STUDY  NO.  27.  Hunkins,  R.  V.  and  Breed,  F.  S.  "The  validity  of 
arithmetical  reasoning  tests."  Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  23,  pp. 
453-466. 

Hunkins  and  Breed  conducted  an  investigation  to  determine  the  rela- 
tive validity  of  seven  reasoning  tests  in  arithmetic.  These  tests  were  given 
to  127  pupils  in  the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  grades.  By  statistical 
methods,  a  composite  score  for  all  of  the  tests  was  found  for  each  pupil. 
The  best  test  was  the  one  whose  scores  were  in  closest  agreement  with 
the  composite  scores.  The  final  rating  or  merit  of  the  tests  arranged  them 
in  this  order:  (1)  The  Stone  Reasoning  Test,  (2)  and  (3)  the  arith- 
metic reasoning  sections  of  the  Haggerty  Intelligence  Examination,  and 
the  Otis  Group  Intelligence  Scale,  Advanced  Examination,  (4)  the  arith- 
metic reasoning  section  of  its  National  Intelligence  Test,  (5)  Starch's 
Arithmetical  Scale,  Form  A,  (6)  Monroe's  Standardized  Reasoning  Test 
in  Arithmetic,  Form  1,  and  (7)  the  Buckingham  Scale  for  Problems  in 
Arithmetic,  Form  1. 


94  Department  of  Superintendence 

STUDY  NO.  28.  Stone,  John  C.  Standardized  reasoning  tests  in 
arithmetic  and  how  to  use  them.  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers  Col- 
lege,  Columbia  University,    New  York  City. 

In  his  Standardized  Reasoning  Tests  in  Arithmetic  and  How  To  Use 
Them,  Stone  indicates  that  standardized  tests  are  useful  in  surveys,  in 
supervision,  and  in  teaching.  Just  as  the  skilful  physician  measures, 
diagnoses,  prescribes  treatment,  and  measures  again,  so  will  the  good 
teacher  measure,  diagnose,  prescribe  remedial  treatment,  and  measure  again. 
Stone  suggests  the  making  of  diagnostic  records,  showing  the  specific  diffi- 
culties of  each  pupil.  He  cautions  teachers  not  to  place  too  much  reliance 
on  a  single  test  record  of  an  individual  pupil.  The  descriptions  of  how 
certain  pupils  increased  their  efficiency  in  reasoning  by  being  taught  to  read 
the  problem  more  carefully,  to  use  less  labelling  in  the  written  solutions, 
and  the  like,  indicate  the  value  of  tests  in  improving  teaching. 

STUDY  NO.  29.  A  comparison  of  two  methods  analyzing  problems. 
A  study  soon  to  be  published  by  The  Lincoln- School,  Columbia  University, 
New  York  City. 

Most  textbooks  in  arithmetic  suggest  that  pupils  should  analyze  prob- 
lems by  thinking:  (1)  What  am  I  asked  to  do  in  this  problem?  (2)  What 
facts  are  known?  (3)  How  should  these  facts  be  used  to  solve  the  prob- 
lem? Another  method,  less  generally  used,  calls  for  the  following  kind 
of  analysis:  In  this  problem,  I  am  trying  to  find  the  profit;  the  profit 
depends  upon  the  cost  and  the  selling  price ;  the  cost  depends  upon  the 
number  of  articles  bought  and  the  price  paid  for  each ;  .and  the  selling  price 
depends  upon  the  number  sold  and  the  price  of  each.  These  facts  are 
given  in  the  problem;  I  can  easily  solve  the  problem. 

John  R.  Clark  and  Leona  Vincent  compared  these  two  methods  by 
having  two  carefully  selected  equivalent  groups  of  eighth  and  ninth-grade 
pupils  solve  a  list  of  fifty  problems.  The  group  that  used  the  second 
method  of  analysis  received  the  highest  score  both  in  correctness  of  rea- 
soning and  in  correctness  of  answers.  The  investigators  believe  that  this 
method  should  be  studied  more  fully  before  its  superiority  over  the  tradi- 
tional method  can  be  claimed  with  any  degree  of  certainty. 

STUDY  NO.  30.  Myers,  G.  C.  The  tragedy  of  errors  in  arithmetic. 
Plymouth  Press,  Chicago. 

We  have  seen  that  the  chief  difficulty  in  problem  solving  is  inability  to 
comprehend  the  relationships  between  the  quantitative  elements  in  the 
verbally  presented  problem.  Myers  believed  that  problems  presented  in 
the  form  of  vivid,  imaginative  descriptions  are  more  readily  comprehended 
than  similar  problems  presented  in  the  ordinary  brief,  terse,  conventional 
bookish  style.  He  designed  a  test  containing  six  problems,  each  phrased 
in  two  ways.    The  two  presentations  of  one  of  the  six  problems  follows : 

(C)  Bertha's  daddy  bought  her  a  new  string  of  100  beads.  While  she  was 
playing  tag,  the  string  broke.     Poor  Bertha!     The  beads  scattered  in  every  direc- 


The  Third  Yearbook  95 


tion.     She  caught  48  of  them  before  they  fell,  but  she  found  only  half  of  the  rest. 

When  she  put  the  beads  on  another  string,  she  had  only beads. 

(C)  A  girl  caught  only  35  of  her  string  of  135  beads  when  the  string  broke, 
and  could  find  only  half  of  the  rest,  how  many  beads  did  she  save?  The  same 
arithmetical  reasoning  is  involved  in  the  paired  forms;  there  is  a  slight  differ- 
ence in  the  computation  required  to  solve  them,  though  Myers  evidently  assumed 
that  there  was  no  difference. 

The  twelve  problems,  arranged  in  mixed  order,  were  solved  by  468 
persons.  In  five  of  the  pairs  of  problems,  the  imaginative  type  proved 
noticeably  easier. 

This  investigation  suggests  the  desirability  of  describing  problems  in 
language  such  that  pupils  will  more  easily  understand  their  relationships. 

Conclusion.  These  investigations  of  reasoning  in  arithmetic  appear  to 
justify  the  following  conclusions:  1.  There  is  a  closer  relationship  between 
reasoning  ability  and  general  intelligence  than  between  reasoning  ability 
and  skill  in  computation.  Consequently,  pupils  with  low  intelligence  are 
very  unlikely,  even  under  the  best  instruction,  to  succeed  well  in  arith- 
metical reasoning.  Conversely,  pupils  with  high  intelligence  are  able  to 
reason  fairly  well  without  any  systematic  instruction  in  problem  solving. 
2.  Instruction  in  the  technique  of  problem  solving,  accompanied  by  prac- 
tice, results  in  increased  power  to  do  arithmetical  reasoning.  3.  The 
factors  that  seem  essential  to  one's  success  in  arithmetical  reasoning,  in 
addition  to  general  intelligence,  are  (a)  silent  reading  ability,  (b) 
familiarity  with  the  vocabulary  of  arithmetic,  (c)  the  experience  neces- 
sary to  understand  the  "setting"  or  context  of  problems  (d)  knowledge 
of  certain  measures  (e)  dependable  habits  of  computation  (f)  ability  to 
associate  relationships  described  in  the  problem  with  the  proper  arith- 
metical operations,  and  (g)  interest  in  solving  problems.  4.  There  is 
some  evidence  that  the  graphic  method  of  analyzing  problems  leads  to 
greater  accuracy  in  reasoning  than  the  verbal  or  conventional  method. 
5.  Reasoning  tests  are  invaluable  working  tools  for  teachers  of  arithmetic. 

No  investigations  of  the  relation  between  the  number  of  "steps"  in  the 
problem  and  its  difficulty  were  found.  In  general,  teachers  believe  that 
one  step  problems  should  predominate  in  the  second  and  third  grades,  reserv- 
ing two  and  three  "step"  reasoning  for  the  later  grades.  Very  likely,  the 
difficulty  of  a  problem,  other  things  being  equal,  increases  with  the  number 
of  "steps"  involved  in  its  solution.  Of  the  488  problems  in  a  widely  used 
text  in  arithmetic  for  grades  III  and  IV,  404  were  "one  step"  problems, 
and  73  were  the  "two  step"  kind. 

A  fifth  conclusion  should  be  added — namely,  that  the  whole  question  of 
reasoning  and  reasoning  problems  in  arithmetic  has  not  been  sufficiently 
investigated. 

V.  What  has  Psychology  and  Experimental  Education  to 
Contribute? 
In  recent  years  there  has  been  an  increased  attention  to  testing  by  scientific 
methods  the  traditional  conclusions  and  practices  of  arithmetic.     Many  of 


96  Department  of  Superintendence 

the  studies  are  too  small  to  do  more  than  suggest  a  method  of  final  study. 
Others  give  only  tentative  conclusions.  Eight  of  the  questions  studied  are 
partially  answered  by  Studies  31-48. 

i.  WHAT  METHOD  OF  SUBTRACTION  IS  MOST  EFFECTIVE? 

STUDY  NO.  31.  Ballard,  P.  B.  "Norms  of  performance  in  the  fun- 
damental processes  of  arithmetic,  with  suggestions  for  their  improvement." 
Journal  of  Experimental  Pedagogy.  December,  1914,  Volume  2,  pp.  386- 
405;  March,  1915,  Volume  3,  pp.  9-20. 

The  author  finds  a  superiority  from  a  practical  point  of  view  of  the 
method  of  equal  addition  over  the  method  of  decomposition  in  subtraction. 
By  equal  addition  the  author  means  increasing  the  subtrahend  in  "paying 
back."  By  decomposition  he  means  decreasing  the  minuend  in  a  similar 
situation.  He  says,  "The  main  secret  of  the  difference  lies  in  the  dispatch 
with  which  accounts  are  settled.  One  is  'cash  payment,'  the  other 
'credit.'  And  the  postponement  of  the  compensating  act  increases  the 
chances  of  its  fulfillment  being  forgotten."  For  example,  "in  subtracting  37 
from  85,  after  taking  7  from  15  the  disturbed  relationship  of  difference 
between  minuend  and  subtrahend  is  immediately  restored  by  increasing  the 
3  tens  to  4  tens.  In  the  method  of  decomposition,  however,  it  is  the  8,  the 
second  figure  dealt  with  that  has  to  be  changed  to  restore  the  balance.  If 
the  minuend  figure  is  zero,  the  balancing  of  account  is  still  longer  deferred." 

The  author  says  further,  "The  disadvantage  of  the  decomposition  method 
is  not  of  course  limited  to  pure  subtraction  sums;  it  vitiates  all  exercises 
into  which  subtraction  enters — long  division,  for  instance — and  is,  as  I  have 
abundantly  tested,  performed  in  the  schools  using  this  method  of  subtraction 
with  difficulty  and  with  dubious  accuracy — and  yet  the  decomposition 
method  is  apparently  taught  in  about  two  thirds  of  the  London  schools. 

"The  reason  for  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  rationale  of  the  decomposi- 
tion method  is  more  easily  understood  than  that  of  the  equal  addition 
method.  The  decomposition  method  is  'more  intelligible  but  its  practical 
efficiency  is  not  encouraging.'  " 

STUDY  NO.  32.  Gray,  P.  L.  "Norms  of  performance  in  the  funda- 
mental processes  of  arithmetic."  Journal  of  Experimental  Pedagogy.  Lon- 
don, June,  1916.     Volume  3,  pp.  310-318. 

This  is  a  repetition  of  Ballard's  experiment  on  the  same  problem.  The 
superiority  of  the  equal  additions  method  of  subtraction  is  confirmed. 

STUDY  NO.  33.  Mead,  C.  D.,  and  Sears,  Isabel.  "Additive  subtrac- 
tion and  multiplicative  division  tested."  Journal  of  Educational  Psy- 
chology.    May,  1916.     Vol.  7,  pp.  261-270. 

One  second-grade  class  was  taught  by  the  additive  method  of  subtraction, 
another  second-grade  class  was  taught  by  the  traditional  (decomposition) 
method.     All  the  children  were  taught  30  minutes  a  day  for  four  months. 


The  Third  Yearbook  97 


They  found  no  clear-cut  difference.     The  median  of  the  "take-away"  class 
was  4.5  above  that  of  the  additive  class. 

STUDY  NO.  34.  McClelland,  William  W.  "An  experimental  study 
of  the  different  methods  of  subtraction."  Journal  of  Experimental  Peda- 
gogy.    London,  December,  1918.     Vol.  4,  pp.  293-299. 

The  findings  favor  the  method  of  equal  additions. 

STUDY  NO.  35.  Winch,  W.  H.  "Equal  additions  versus  decomposi- 
tion in  teaching  subtraction :  An  experimental  research."  Journal  of  Ex- 
perimental Pedagogy.  London,  June  and  December,  1920.  Vol.  5,  pp. 
206-220  and  pp.  261-270. 

These  articles  describe  experiments  in  teaching  each  of  these  methods  to 
equalized  groups.  Extremely  interesting  case  studies  are  given.  The  con- 
clusions are: 

1.  The  method  of  equal  additions  in  subtraction  taught  to  children  late 
in  school  life,  who  have  hitherto  worked  by  decomposition,  produces  on  the 
whole  results  in  a  few  weeks  and  superior  in  the  weaker  children,  to  those 
produced  by  the  method  of  decomposition. 

2.  The  amount  of  gain  involved  does  not  justify  a  change  of  method  at 
this  late  period  of  a  child's  school  career. 

3.  The  method  of  equal  additions  shows  to  decided  advantage  with 
young  children  in  accuracy  and  rapidity ;  and  this  is  true  both  for  superior 
children,  who  had  already  learned  something  of  both  methods,  and  for 
inferior  children,  who,  prior  to  the  experiment,  knew  practically  nothing 
of  either  method. 

STUDY  NO.  36.  Beatty,  W.  W.  "The  additive  versus  the  borrow- 
ing method  of  subtraction."  Elementary  School  Journal.  November, 
1920.    Vol.  21,  pp.  198-220. 

Beatty  found  that  in  the  San  Francisco  Normal  School  where  the  addi- 
tive method  had  been  taught  for  a  number  of  years,  43  students  had 
abandoned  the  additive  method  and  adopted  the  borrowing  method.  Of 
175  California  children,  only  52  used  the  additive  method  against  123 
the  borrowing  method.  The  respective  rates  on  the  Courtis  subtraction 
test  were  8.2  and  9.2  for  speed,  and  81.7  per  cent  and  79.3  per  cent  for 
accuracy. 

STUDY  NO.  37.  Johnson,  T.  J.  "The  merits  of  different  methods 
of  subtraction."  Journal  of  Educational  Research.  November,  1924.  Vol. 
10,  pp.  279-290. 

This  is  a  study  in  subtraction  with  277  Chicago  Normal  School  students 
to  whom  were  dictated  the  exercises  from  the  Courtis  Standard  Practice 
Tests. 


98  Department  of  Superintendence 

After  all  the  students  had   finished  their  attention  was   called  to  the 
fourth  example  which  was  137017.     Each  was  asked  to  analyze  the  method 

70719 


used  as  follows : 

Either,  or 

9  from  17  are  8  9  and  what  are  17 

1  from  10  is  9  1  and  what  are  10 
etc.                                                          etc. 

or  or 

9  from  17  are  8  9  and  what  are  17 

2  from  11  are  9  2  and  what  are  11 
etc.                                                          etc. 

or  any  other  method  used. 
Out  of  the  277  cases,  220  used  the  first  method;  23  used  the  second 
method;  8  used  the  third  method;  13  used  the  fourth  method;  and  13  used 
a  mixed  method.  It  was  found  that  those  using  the  way  first  mentioned 
were  slightly  slower  and  less  accurate  than  those  using  any  one  of  the  other 
three  methods.  But  the  difference  is  too  small  to  be  of  significance,  since 
there  is  no  way  of  knowing  how  the  group  using  the  different  methods 
compared  in  intelligence  and  general  mathematical  ability.  It  may  be,  for 
example,  that  more  inferior  people  use  the  first  method. 

2.    IN    MULTIPLICATION,    WHAT   SHALL   THE    CURRICULUM    SPECIFY    AS    TO 

METHOD? 

STUDY  NO.  38.  Mead,  Cyrus  D.,  and  Sears,  Isabel.  "Additive  sub- 
traction and  multiplicative  division  tested."  Journal  of  Educational  Psy~ 
chology.    May,  1916.    Vol.  7,  pp.  261-270. 

Mead  and  Sears  in  Study  No.  33  on  page  96  also  gave  to  a  third  grade 
class  four  months  training  in  the  multiplication  method  of  division  and  to 
another  class  training  in  learning  by  first  mastering  the  division  tables. 
They  found  practically  no  difference  between  the  two  methods. 

3.  WHAT  ARE  THE  PREFERABLE  PROCEDURES   IN  ADDITION? 

STUDY  NO.  39.  Connard,  H.  F.,  and  Arps,  George  F.  "An  experi- 
mental study  of  economical  learning."  American  Journal  of  Psychology. 
1916.    Vol.  27,  pp.  507-529. 

By  Arps  and  Connard,  on  the  basis  of  performance  in  Courtis  tests  64 
college  students  were  divided  into -two  equal  groups.     In  adding  a  column 

5 
like  7  Group  T  were 

1 

6 

2 

3 

instructed  to  add  in  the  traditional  way  saying  to  themselves  3  and  2  are  5 
and  6  are  1L  and  1  are  12,  etc.    Group  E  were  to  say  5,  11,  12,  19,  24,  etc. 


The  Third  Yearbook  99 

This  was  to  be  known  as  the  economical  way.  Each  group  practiced  8 
periods,  solving  7  problems  in  each  of  the  four  fundamental  operations. 
After  practice  the  Courtis  tests  were  repeated  with  gain  by  T  group  of 
8.5  attempts  and  minus  2.5  rights;  by  E  group  of  34.4  attempts  and  30.5 
rights. 

STUDY  NO.  40.  Uhl,  W.  L.  "The  use  of  standardized  materials  in 
arithmetic  for  diagnosing  pupils'  methods  of  work."  Educational  School 
Journal.     1917.     Vol.  18,  pp.  215-218. 

Using  the  Courtis  tests,  Uhl  checked  on  the  variety  of  ways  grade  chil- 
dren have  in  devising  new  modes  of  breaking  up  and  recombining  numbers 
into  smaller  and  larger  units.  He  concluded  that  such  ingenuity  offered 
at  least  2  serious  shortcomings:  (1)  the  danger  of  increasing  errors;  and 
(2)  reduction  of  speed  in  working. 

4.  PUPILS'  ERRORS,  HOW  NUMEROUS,  THEIR  NATURE,  THEIR  CAUSE, 
THEIR   REMEDIES 

Only  two  of  the  many  studies  on  errors  in  arithmetic  are  briefly  sum- 
marized here. 

STUDY  NO.  41.  Osburn,  W.  J.  Diagnostic  and  remedial  treatment 
of  errors  in  arithmetic  reasoning.  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction, 
Madison,  Wis.    December,  1922. 

This  study  shows  that  errors  may  be  reduced  to  a  few  classes.  Four 
or  five  different  classes  of  errors  are  responsible  for  at  least  three-fourths 
of  the  trouble  which  children  have.  The  30,000  errors  made  by  6,000 
children  on  the  Buckingham  Problem  Test,  Form  1,  are  reduced  to  six 
classes  as  follows :  ( 1 )  Total  failure  to  comprehend  the  problem,  30  per 
cent;  (2)  procedure  partly  correct,  but  one  or  two  essential  elements 
omitted,  20  per  cent;  (3)  ignorance  of  fundamental  quantitative  relations, 
10  per  cent;  (4)  errors  in  fundamentals,  20  per  cent;  (5)  miscellaneous 
errors,  2  per  cent;  (6)  errors  whose  cause  could  not  be  discovered,  18  per 
cent.  "About  60  per  cent  of  the  wrong  answers  are  due  to  failure  right 
in  the  beginning  to  understand  what  is  to  be  done." 

STUDY  NO.  42.  Myers,  G.  C.  "Persistence  of  errors  in  arithmetic." 
Journal  of  Educational  Research.  June,  1924.  pp.  19-28.  (Appearing 
more  fully  in  The  prevention  and  correction  of  errors  in  arithmetic. 
Chicago,  The  Plymouth  Press,  1924. 

The  method  was  to  note  the  actual  response  of  a  child  to  a  number 

situation  and  to  follow  this  child  on  the  same  detail  for  a  long  period  of 

time.     Child  M.  B.  of  the  third  grade  responded  on  successive  school  days 

to  2  as  follows:  7,  7,  6,  6,  7,  6,  6,  6,  6,  6,  6,  7,  7,  6,  7,  6,  6,  6,  6,  6,  7,  6. 

4 

Successive  responses  by  child  F.  W.  of  Grade  2A  to  8  and  5  were,  13,  15. 
13,  15,  13,  13,  13,  13,  13,  13,  13,  13,  15,  15,  12,  15,  13,  13.    To  13-9: 


100  Department  of  Superintendence 

4,  4,  4,  4,  5,  4,  5,  5,  5,  4,  4,  4,  5,  4,  4.  This  was  an  average  child  of  his 
class  who  gave  the  foregoing  in  flash  card  drill.  Following  each  error  he 
was  told  the  correct  answer  as  "8  and  5  are  13"  and  was  made  to  repeat 
it  after  the  teacher  in  that  way  immediately. 

At  the  conclusion  of  extensive  researches,  Myers  concludes : 

1.  A  mistake  is  immeasurably  serious. 

2.  We  are  never  sure  that  an  error  once  made  will  not  be  made  again 
and  in  just  the  same  way. 

3.  A  wrong  answer  in  number  work  is  apparently  just  as  definite  as 
a  right  answer.  In  terms  of  habit  process  there  is  no  difference  between  a 
wrong  answer  and  a  right  one.  Errors  are  not  negative  entities.  They 
are  just  as  positive  as  correct  responses. 

From  the  foregoing  data  what  we  have  called  drill  is  obviously  a  process 
of  fixing  errors  as  well  as  of  fixing  facts.  True  drill  can  be  looked  upon 
only  as  repetitions  of  correct  bonds. 

Other  studies  dealing  with  errors  in  arithmetic  are : 

Scott,  W.  "Errors  in  arithmetic."  Journal  of  Experimental  Pedagogy. 
London,  December,  1917.     Volume  4,  pp.  147-150. 

Courtis,  G.  S.  Arithmetic  tests  and  studies  in  the  psychology  of  arithmetic. 
University  of  Chicago  Press,   1917.     127  pp. 

Anderson,  C.  J.  "The  use  of  the  Woody  scales  for  diagnostic  purposes." 
Elementary  School  Journal.    June,  1918.     Volume  18,  pp.  770-81. 

Theisen,  W.  W.,  and  others.  An  educational  survey  of  Janesville,  Wisconsin. 
State  Department  of  Public  Instruction.     Madison,  Wisconsin.     1918. 

Morton,  R.  L.  "An  analysis  of  pupil's  errors  in  fractions."  Journal  of  Edu- 
cational Research.     February,  1924.     Volume  9,  pp.  117-125. 

Osburn,  W.  J.     Corrective  arithmetic.     Houghton  Mifflin,   1924. 

5.    IS   THERE  TRANSFER   OF  TRAINING? 

Is  there  a  transfer  of  training  in  the  sense  that  drill  upon  the  useful 
fractions  as  shown  by  the  studies  of  Section  II  of  this  chapter,  will  enable 
pupils  to  deal  successfully  with  other  fractions  when  encountered  in 
equally  meaningful  situations? 

Knight's  study  on  this  subject  is  so  encouraging  that  we  may  limit  work 
to  situations  that  are  useful  and  meaningful  for  the  child  at  the  time  he 
does  them. 

STUDY  NO.  43-  Knight,  F.  B.,  and  Setzafandt,  A.  O.  H.  "Transfer 
within  a  narrow  mental  function."  Elementary  School  Journal.  June, 
1924.    Vol.  25,  Number  10,  pp.  780-88. 

Problem.  To  determine  the  amount  of  transfer  in  the  narrow  mental 
function  of  the  addition  of  fractions. 

Method.  A  group  of  pupils  just  ready  to  take  up  the  study  of  addition 
of  fractions  was  given  tests  to  make  sure  that  they  did  not  have  this 
ability.  Then  the  group  was  divided  into  two  groups  of  equal  ability, 
A  and  B.     Both  groups  were  given  the  same  type  of  instruction  and  the 


The  Third  Yearbook  101 

same  amount  of  practice.  The  practice  materials  for  Group  A  were  so 
constructed  that  there  were  evenly  distributed  and  thorough  practices  on 
the  following  denominators:  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  12,  14,  15,  16,  18, 
21,  24,  28,  30.  In  Group  B  the  practice  was  confined  to  the  denomina- 
tors: 2,  4,  6,  8,  12,  24.  The  drill  material  consisted  of  ten  exercises  in 
addition,  two  exercises  in  the  reduction  of  fractions,  and  one  exercise  in 
adding  mixed  numbers.  After  the  drill  period  two  tests  were  given  both 
groups,  involving  denominators  practiced  by  both  groups  and  also  denomi- 
nators practiced  upon  Group  A  and  not  practiced  upon  by  Group  B. 

Findings.  Almost  complete  transfer  resulted.  Group  B  solved  almost 
as  many  exercises  involving  the  denominators  upon  which  they  had  not 
practiced  as  did  Group  A.  The  correlations  between  the  number  of  ex- 
ercises attempted  and  the  number  of  exercises  correct  showed  practically 
no  variation  from  Group  B  with  limited  training  to  Group  A  with  general 
training. 

Note.  The  particular  bearing  of  this  investigation  upon  the  social  use 
of  arithmetic  lies  in  the  facts  that  the  fractions  in  the  practice  material 
for  Group  B  are  virtually  the  fractions  commonly  met  in  business  and 
social  transactions  and  that  this  investigation  suggests  that  mastery  of  the 
manipulations  of  these  will  give  the  necessary  command  over  the  uncom- 
mon fractions  if  encountered. 

6.    WHAT    IS    THE    RELATIVE    IMPORTANCE    OF    MENTAL    FACTORS    IN    THE 
LEARNING  OF  ARITHMETIC? 

A  study  showing  the  primary  importance  of  interest,  attitude,  or  motive, 
for  successful  learning  is — 

STUDY  NO.  44.  Huffaker,  Carl  Leo.  Psychological  analysis  of  learn- 
ing in  arithmetic.  Unpublished  Doctor's  Thesis,  1923.  Library  of  State 
University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City,  Iowa. 

Problem.  To  isolate,  describe,  and  measure  the  effect  of  some  of  the 
causes  of  individual  variations  in  general  arithmetical  ability  and  the  special 
abilities  of  which  it  is  composed:  (a)  the  special  ability  to  solve  problems 
stated  in  words,  and  (b)  the  special  ability  of  computation. 

Method.  The  author  had  the  teacher  rate  the  experimental  groups  as  to 
attitude,  gave  them  one  individual  and  two  group  intelligence  tests,  and 
then  used  two  achievement  tests  for  testing  three  kinds  of  arithmetical 
ability — namely,  general,  problem  solving,  and  computation  abilities.  He 
then  treated  them  statistically  by  applying  the  methods  of  partial  and 
multiple  correlations. 

Conclusions  reached.  The  chief  conditioning  factors  in  each  of  the 
three  kinds  of  arithmetical  ability  were  found  to  be  of  the  same  order  of 
importance — namely,  first,  attitude;  second,  mental  age;  and  third,  chrono- 
logical age. 


102  Department  of  Superintendence 

The  author  states  that  "when  case  studies  were  made  of  all  pupils  whose 
accomplishment  in  arithmetic  varied  widely  from  their  accomplishment  in 
general  educational  ability,  the  outstanding  feature  of  the  case  studies  was 
the  tendency  of  pupils  who  scored  higher  in  arithmetic  than  in  other  sub- 
jects, to  score  high  in  attitude.  The  opposite  is  generally  true  of  the  pupils 
who  scored  relatively  higher  in  other  school  subjects  than  in  arithmetic." 

7.  WHAT  IS  THE  RELATIVE  DIFFICULTY,   OR  THE   ORDER   OF  DIFFICULTY, 
OF  THE  PRIMARY   NUMBER   COMBINATIONS? 

From  the  curriculum  standpoint,  this  is  a  fundamental  question,  and  it 
is  surprising  that  it  did  not  become  an  object  of  study  until  recently. 

STUDY  NO.  45.  Holloway,  Harry  Vance.  An  experimental  study  to 
determine  the  relative  difficulty  of  the  elementary  number  combinations  in 
addition  and  multiplication.  Trenton,  N.  J.,  State  Gazette  Publishing 
Company,  1915. 

Problem.  To  determine  the  relative  difficulty  of  the  simple  combinations 
in  addition  and  multiplication. 

Method.  In  the  first  part  of  the  investigation  a  preliminary  test  involving 
the  45  combinations  in  addition  was  given  to  the  children  in  Grade  I  and 
in  the  first  half  of  Grade  II,  and  a  test  involving  the  78  combinations  in 
multiplication  was  given  to  the  children  in  the  second  half  of  Grade  II  and 
in  the  first  half  of  Grade  III  to  discover  the  particular  combinations  to 
which  wrong  responses  were  made.  After  the  test,  the  45  combinations 
were  arranged  in  9  groups  of  approximately  the  same  difficulty  and  similarly 
the  78  combinations  in  multiplication,  in  16  groups.  In  the  respective 
classes,  instruction  and  testing  on  the  different  groups  in  turn  was  begun 
and  continued  until  class  responses  of  97  per  cent  correct  on  the  different 
groups  were  obtained.  Two  weeks  after  beginning  instruction  on  a  new 
group  of  combinations,  a  test  involving  the  combinations  of  the  previous 
groups  was  given.  Then  the  original  list  of  combinations  was  arranged  in 
3  groups,  and  those  in  multiplication  in  5  groups,  and  instruction  was  con- 
tinued until  the  desired  97  per  cent  correct  responses  on  these  groups  were 
obtained.  The  final  tests  involving  the  original  combinations  were  given. 
In  this  portion  of  the  investigation,  the  number  of  times  each  individual 
combination  was  missed  on  the  various  tests  given  was  taken  as  an  indica- 
tion of  its  difficulty. 

As  a  second  portion  of  the  investigation,  to  check  upon  this  method  of 
determining  difficulty,  the  author  gave  written  tests  involving  these  same 
sets  of  combinations  to  a  large  number  of  pupils  in  Grade  III  just  before 
and  just  after  the  summer  vacation.  These  results  were  combined  with 
those  previously  obtained  in  giving  the  final  difficulty  rating  of  the  com- 
binations. 

General  conclusions.  1.  In  the  process  of  learning,  each  group  of  com- 
binations, power  or  method  is  developed  whereby  subsequent  groups  are 
more  easily  managed. 


The  Third  Yearbook  103 


2.  Girls  learn  the  addition  combinations  with  less  difficulty  than  boys  by 
about  10  per  cent  and  make  10  per  cent  fewer  errors  in  the  process. 

3.  Girls  learn  the  multiplication  combination  with  about  25  per  cent  less 
difficulty  than  boys,  and  make  about  13  per  cent  fewer  errors  in  the  process 
of  mastery,  but  boys  retain  2.7  per  cent  better  than  girls  when  the  whole 
series  of  products  is  considered,  excelling  especially  in  the  larger  ones,  while 
girls  excel  slightly  in  retaining  the  smaller  products. 

4.  In  the  process  of  teaching  the  addition  facts,  fewer  errors  appear  in 
the  double  numbers  even  when  equal  opportunity  for  making  errors  is  pro- 
vided; the  fewest  appearing  in  5  — {—  5,  and  the  greatest  in  8  -j-  8. 

5.  In  teaching  multiplication  the  fewest  errors  appear  in  the  10's  and 
ll's  and  the  next  fewest  in  the  doubles  after  3X^. 

6.  Combinations  in  the  latter  part  of  the  series  in  both  addition  and 
multiplication  are  more  readily  learned,  but  they  are  also  more  easily  for- 
gotten. 

7.  From  the  standpoint  of  skill  irt  manipulation,  difficulty  in  addition 
increases  with  the  magnitude  of  the  numbers. 

8.  The  groups  showing  the  least  skill  for  their  manipulation  are  the 
same  as  those  showing  the  greatest  number  of  errors.  This  shows  close 
correlation  between  speed  and  accuracy ;  greater  speed  accompanying  greater 
accuracy. 

STUDY  NO.  46.  Heilman,  J.  D.  and  Shultis,  Frank  W.  "A  study  in 
addition."  Research  Bulletin,  Number  1,  State  Teachers  College,  Greeley, 
Colorado. 

Problem.  To  determine  the  difficulty  order  of  the  combinations  in 
addition. 

Method.  The  study  was  based  upon  the  length  of  time  taken  by  20 
pupils  in  Grades  V  and  VI  in  responding  to  the  different  combinations  in 
addition.  The  20  children  were  chosen  from  the  total  number  of  children 
in  these  grades  because  preliminary  tests  showed  that  they  manifested  suffi- 
cient variation  in  responding  to  the  different  combinations  to  indicate  clearly 
difficulty  differences  among  the  combinations.  Obviously,  either  the  chil- 
dren who  manifested  little  or  no  knowledge  of  the  combinations,  nor  those 
who  knew  them  so  well  that  their  responses  to  the  individual  combinations 
showed  no  variation  could  be  used.  Each  of  the  20  pupils  selected  was 
given  an  individual  examination  on  59  combinations  in  addition.  In  this 
examination,  the  examiner  read  a  combination  orally  and  the  child  gave 
the  correct  response  as  quickly  as  possible.  The  examiner  by  means  of  a 
stop-watch  measured  the  time  intervening  between  the  time  he  ceased 
reading  the  combination  and  the  time  the  child  began  to  give  his  response. 
The  average  time  taken  by  the  20  children  to  respond  to  each  of  the  differ- 
ent combinations  was  taken  as  an  indication  of  the  difficulty.  In  connection 
with  the  individual  examination,  each  child  was  questioned  as  to  the  method 
employed  in  arriving  at  the  response  given.     On  the  basis  of  the  results 


104  Department  of  Superintendence 

of  these  examinations  a  three-minute  drill  was  given  throughout  the  year. 
At  the  end  of  the  year  these  20  pupils  were  re-tested  in  exactly  the  same 
manner  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment.  The  second  examination 
gave  a  check  upon  the  difficulty  of  the  combinations  determined  by  the  first 
examination.  Upon  the  results  of  these  two  examinations  a  table  setting 
forth  the  difficulty  of  the  different  combinations  was  developed. 

Findings.  Some  of  the  most  important  findings  of  the  experiment  are 
as  follows: 

1.  The  easiest  types  of  combinations  are  doubles,  such  as  2  +  2;  other 
easy  combinations  are  those  having  one  small  number,  such  as  3  -f-  1 ;  com- 
binations with  small  sums,  such  as  3  -j-  2 ;  combinations  with  sums  one 
more  or  one  less  than  twice  one  of  the  numbers,  such  as  4  -j-  3 ;  combina- 
tions with  one  number  an  easy  multiple  of  the  other,  such  as  8  +  4. 

2.  Combinations  with  the  small  number  last  are  easier  than  those  with 
the  small  number  first,  such  as  3  +  1  and  1  -(-  3. 

3.  The  most  difficult  combination,  7  +  9,  requires  a  response  time  more 
than  three  times  as  long  as  the  response  time  of  the  easiest,  2  — j—  2. 

4.  Long  response  times  indicate  the  use  of  counting  or  some  other  indirect 
method  of  addition.  The  child  who  responds  16  to  the  situation,  9  -j-  7, 
uses  much  less  time  than  the  child  who  responds  by  saying  9  +  5  +  2  or 
9  +  9  —  2. 

5.  The  data  of  the  experiment  furnish  the  following  theoretical  table 
showing  the  81  combinations  used  in  all  tests,  arranged  according  to  diffi- 
culty, the  easiest  first: 

2+2  8+8  1+3  4+2  6+3  4+5  8+4  6+7  8+9 

1  +  1  9+9  1+4  5+2  2+8  3+5  3+7  4+9  9+5 

3+3  3+1  1+5'  6+2  2+7  7+3  3+8  7+5  8+6 

5+5  4+1  1+6  2+4  3+6  6+5  4+8  8+5  5+9 

4+4  5+1  1+7  2+5  2+9  9+3  7+4  5+7  6+8 

6+6  6+1  1+8  7+2  4+3  5+6  3+9  5+8  9+6 

7+7  7+1  1+9  8+2  3+4  6+4  4+7  8+7  6+9 

1+2  8+1  3+2  2+6  5+4  8+3  7+6  9+8  9+7 

2+1  9+1  2+3  9+2  5+3  4+6  9+4  7+8  7+9 

STUDY  NO.  47.  Osburn,  W.  J.  Corrective  arithmetic.  Houghton 
Mifflin  Company,  1924,  Boston,  Mass. 

The  appendix  lists  about  1700  .combinations  in  the  four  fundamental 
processes,  which  the  author  regards  as  necessary  for  tool  mastery. 

STUDY  NO.  48.  Clapp,  Frank  L.  The  number  combinations ,  their 
relative  difficulty  and  the  frequency  of  their  appearance  in  textbooks.  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin,  July,   1924.     120p.  __  . 

Method.  1.  About  7000  pupils  in  four  school  systems  were  tested  for 
the  automatic  mastery  of  the  primary  number  combinations  when  presented 
singly. 


The  Third  Yearbook  105 


2.  About  3500  pupils  in  forty-five  different  school  systems  were  tested 
for  ability  in  connection  with  the  number  combinations  when  presented  in 
problems  with  no  time  limit. 

3.  The  first  two  books  of  two  three-book  series  were  analyzed  in  order 
to  determine  the  number  of  times  each  combination  appeared. 

Results.  1.  Two  sets  of  tables  present  the  combinations  in  decreasing 
order  of  difficulty  for  each  grade.  The  first  is  the  result  of  that  part  of 
the  investigation  referred  to  in  "1"  above,  the  second  is  the  result  of  that 
referred  to  under  "2." 

2.  Tables  are  presented  showing  the  number  of  times  each  combination 
appeared  in  each  of  texts  while  other  tables  show  the  combinations  arranged 
in  decreasing  order  of  frequency  of  appearance. 

3.  Combinations  tend  to  hold  the  same  general  position  of  relative  diffi- 
culty throughout  the  grades. 

4.  The  zero  combinations  afford  much  greater  difficulty  when  presented 
singly  than  when  presented  in  problems. 

5.  In  general,  the  larger  the  members  of  a  combination  the  greater  its 
difficulty  although  there  are  many  exceptions. 

6.  Pupils  have  reduced  the  combinations  almost  to  an  automatic  level 
in  addition — then  come  in  order  multiplication,  subtraction,  and  division. 

7.  In  actual  problems  pupils  make  the  smallest  percentage  of  errors  on 
combinations  in  multiplication — then  come  in  order,  subtraction,  addition, 
and  division. 

8.  The  coefficients  of  correlation  between  the  difficulty  of  combina- 
tions when  presented  singly  with  a  time  limit  and  when  presented 
in  problems  without  a  time  limit  are  as  follows:  Addition  -[-.544;  Sub- 
traction +.390;  Multiplication  +.580;  and  Division  +.022.    . 

9.  Members  of  "pairs"  of  combinations  are  no  more  nearly  equal  in 
difficulty  than  are  other  combinations. 

10.  There  are  100  simple  combinations  to  be  taught  in  addition,  in  sub- 
traction, and  in  multiplication,  and  90  in  division. 

11.  The  number  of  actual  errors  in  relation  to  the  number  of  possible 
errors  is  greater  for  certain  phases  of  each  of  the  processes  than  for  the 
combinations. 

12.  The  total  number  of  basic  combinations  in  each  of  the  two  texts 
that  were  analyzed  was  as  follows: 

Text  A  Text  B 

Addition  25,490  28,239 

Subtraction  14,053  11,889 

Multiplication         24,704  29,604 

Division  13,146  11,043 


106  Department  of  Superintendence 

13.  The  correlation  between  the  difficulty  of  combinations  and  the  fre- 
quency of  their  appearance  in  the  two  texts  is  negative,  the  coefficients 
being  as  follows: 

Text  A  Text  B 

Addition  -.452  -.532 

Subtraction  -.329  •           -.277 

Multiplication  -.384  -.465 

Division  -.421  -.538 

8.   WHAT   ARE   THE   FACTS   ABOUT   INDIVIDUAL   DIFFERENCES    AND   WHAT 
MAY    BE   DONE  ABOUT  THEM? 

The  entire  testing  movement  in  arithmetic  has  given  evidence  on  the 
facts  of  individual  differences.  It  seems  unnecessary  to  review  the  data. 
What  to  do  about  individual  differences  is  not  so  clear.  But  drill  and 
practice  plans  are  being  evolved  which  wisely  used  can  provide  for  in- 
dividual differences  in  maturity  in  interest  and  in  ability. 

VI.  What  Help  from  Standard  Tests? 

Arithmetic  deals  largely  with  tool  material  on  a  drill  basis.  Such  ma- 
terial lends  itself  most  readily  to  standardized  testing.  Standardized  tests 
in  arithmetic  have  met  all  reasonable  expectations,  although  the  emphasis 
has  been  gradually  shifting  from  national  standards  to  individual  diagnosis 
and  motivated  practice  drill.  The  chief  help  from  standard  tests  is  sum- 
marized in  the  following: 

A.  By  emphasizing  tool  material  they  have  helped  in  eliminating  the 
traditional  and  useless. 

B.  Properly  used  they  have  great  possibilities  in  motivating  drill  either 
for  the  class  or  the  individual. 

C.  They  have  made  possible  reaspnable  norms  of  performance  that  are 
perfectly  definite  and  adapted  to  different  levels  of  intelligence. 

D.  They  have  made  evident  the  facts  of  individual  differences. 

E.  They  have  made  it  safe  and  easy  to  release  pupils  from  further  drill. 

F.  They  have  become  the  chief  aid  in  the  diagnosis  of  the  difficulties  of 
individual  pupils. 

G.  For  the  above  reason,  they  have  helped  in  directing  the  teacher's 
time  and  effort  to  actual  needs  of-  the  class  and  individuals. 

In  general,  standardized  tests  make  it  possible  to  write  drill  specifications 
that  are  specific  and  definite ;  to  measure  the  ability  of  pupils  with  accuracy 
and  to  diagnose  their  difficulties  in  terms  of  specific  responses;  and  to  moti- 
vate, on  a  class  or  individual  basis,  the  entire  procedure  of  mastering  the 
drill  material  of  arithmetic.  The  present  tendency  is  towards  the  inventory- 
diagnostic  tests  that  shall  cover  all  needed  responses  and  so  make  possible 
a  complete  check  on  arithmetic  skill. 

The  results  for  reasoning  problems  are  not  so  definite  or  so  satisfactory. 


The  Third  Yearbook  107 

VII.  What  is  the  Method  of  Curriculum  Determination  in 

Arithmetic? 

The  exceptional  teacher  or  leader  of  children  can,  through  the  mere 
force  of  her  charming  personality  and  her  resourcefulness,  lead  children 
through  almost  any  difficulties.  The  type  of  motivation  that  is  based  on 
the  personal  charm  of  the  teacher,  while  no  doubt  desirable  and  acceptable, 
is  not  sufficient.  In  the  long  run,  the  center  of  interest  must  be  in  the 
child  or  with  the  child  group  rather  than  in  the  teacher.  The  problem  is 
to  organize  a  course  of  study  or  plan  of  work  in  which  the  material  will 
be  most  useful  to  the  child  and  most  appealing  to  him.  There  is  gradually 
shaping  through  the  force  of  previous  studies,  a  tentative  curriculum-mak- 
ing procedure  for  arithmetic. 

The  following  points  will  be  recognized  as  being  drawn  directly  from 
this  accumulating  scientific  data  and  experience. 

A.  The  survey  method  as  explained  in  the  preliminary  report  of  the 
Arithmetic  Committee  of  the  National  Education  Association  (Addresses 
and  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association,  1924,  pp.  324- 
330)  is  the  first  essential  in  gathering  useful  material  with  reference  to 
processes  to  use  and  in  convincing  teacher,  pupil,  and  patron  that  processes 
for  which  the  community  has  no  use  may  be  properly  omitted  from  the 
work  in  arithmetic.  The  survey  method  does  carry  conviction  and  even 
in  a  small  community  secures  enough  data  for  determining  the  useful 
processes. 

B.  Definite  standards  of  motivation  need  to  be  set  up  in  order  that 
teachers  may  not  proceed  with  meaningless  drill  or  formal  textbook  work. 
This  means: 

1.  The  basis  in  actual  experience  shall  be  built  up  before  any  kind  of 
formal  drill  work  is  organized  or  assigned. 

2.  The  child  sees  at  every  step  the  use  and  application  of  the  process  or 
material  on  which  he  is  worknig. 

3.  The  work  at  all  times  is  connected  with  the  personal  interests  of  the 
children.  This  is  so  important  that  a  teacher  is  justified  in  omitting  drill 
and  other  formal  work  while  she  takes  her  class  to  a  cafeteria,  to  a  store, 
to  a  station,  to  a  bank,  etc.,  in  order  to  build  up  experience. 

4.  The  teacher  should  take  time,  as  necessary,  to  develop  a  feeling  of  need 
for  the  work  being  done,  and  this  feeling  of  need  should  be  kept  strong. 

5.  Pupil  behavior  patterns  should  be  utilized  by  the  teacher,  so  that  the 
Arithmetic  of  the  classroom  fits  into  what  the  child  wants  to  do  instead 
of  becoming  a  formal  isolated  classroom  procedure. 

C.  The  first  work  in  arithmetic  is  the  organization  of  experience.  The 
possibilities  in  this  line  are  well  illustrated  by  Miss  Larkin,  Number  Based 
on  the  Child's  Experience,  in  Kindergarten  and  First  Grade,  Vol.  2,  pages 
12,  72,  109,  151.  Miss  Larkin  made  progress  with  her  children  in  propor- 
tion as  she  kept  behind  their  experience. 


108  Department  of  Superintendence 

D.  The  next  work  is  a  broadening  of  experience.  At  this  point,  definite 
extension  of  knowledge  begins.  The  curriculum  must  provide  for  new 
information  for  the  pupils.  Starting  with  present  interests,  the  children 
must  be  led  out  into  the  larger  aspects  of  business  life.  This  means  the 
organization  of  life  situations,  trips,  the  study  of  business,  the  organization 
of  arithmetic  work  around  large  community  interests,  the  use  of  the  school 
bank,  the  use  of  advertising  from  the  local  papers,  in  fact  it  means  any 
procedure  by  which  the  children  are  led  into  the  business  situations  where 
arithmetic  is  used.  This  becomes  the  work  of  the  teacher  in  either  making 
or  administering  the  curriculum. 

E.  As  formerly  indicated,  drill  must  keep  behind  meaning.  Drill  is 
important.  But  drill  can  be  motivated.  It  can  be  aided  through  real 
games.  Where  the  need  is  apparent,  even  devices  are  acceptable  to  the 
children.  If  the  standards  of  motivation  as  set  forth  in  "B"  above  are 
observed,  and,  if  the  drill  is  confined  to  really  needed  and  useful  processes, 
there  is  nothing  that  pays  better  than  systematic  drill.  Such  systematiza- 
tion  of  drill  must  become  a  regular  part  of  the  curriculum  in  arithmetic. 
Merely  to  indicate  the  teaching  of  a  process  should  be  scored  in  future 
course  of  study  as  of  zero  value. 

F.  In  the  upper  grades,  lists  of  isolated  written  problems  should  be 
replaced  by  larger  life  situations  involving  business  and  figuring.  Life 
demands  thinking  in  large  units  rather  than  the  solution  of  isolated  puzzles. 
For  example : 

Should  I  buy  a  house  or  rent? 

Can  I  afford  to  own  an  automobile  ? 

What  is  the  cost  of  a  child  to  age  six? 

What  does  it  cost  to  clothe  a  school  pupil  for  a  year? 

What  are  the  sources  of  loss  in  the  grocery  business? 

What  are  the  marks  of  a  good  investment? 

These  are  samples  of  the  newer  type  of  reasoning  situations  to  which 
children  should  be  introduced.  A  good  course  of  study  will  suggest  many 
such,  and  arrange  so  as  to  avoid  duplication. 

G.  Needless  to  say  no  course  of  study  is  satisfactory  which  does  not 
involve  the  active  participation  of  the  teaching  corps,  as  well  as  superin- 
tendent, supervisors,  and  the  entire  community.  If  the  final  product  is  to 
serve  the  community  it  should  grow  out  of  the  community  and  its  activities, 
as  emphasized  in  point  "A"  above.  But  the  teachers  must  help  in  order  to 
insure  careful  grading  and  proper  articulation  with  the  needs  of  the  children. 

H.  Manifestly,  no  mere  textbook  outline  deserves  the  name  of  curricu- 
lum, nor  does  a  mere  outline  of  topics.  The  modern  course  of  study  includes 
in  addition  to  processes,  details  as  to  skills  and  abilities,  standards,  pro- 
vision for  individual  differences  methods,  standard  forms  for  the  solution 
of  processes,  suggestions  as  to  tests  and  remedial  treatment,  illustrations  of 
good  work,  suggestions  for  local  applications,  a  detail  of  life  situations  for 
use  in  each  grade.     Nor  should  the  curriculum  fail  to  make  clear  to  the 


The  Third  Yearbook  109 


teacher  that  the  provisions  of  the  curriculum  are  merely  suggestive;  the 
teacher's  independence  and  initiative  should  be  fully  protected. 

Comment.  The  apparent  tendency  of  most  of  the  above  studies  in 
arithmetic  is  in  the  direction  of  emphasizing  local  meanings  and  require- 
ments as  a  basis  for  curriculum  material.  A  careful  comparison  of  the 
studies,  however,  shows  that  local  processes  in  Texas  are  duplicated  in 
Illinois  and  Massachusetts,  but  the  concrete  applications  vary  somewhat. 
There  is  no  evident  conflict  between  local  and  national  needs.  The  con- 
sideration of  paramount  importance  in  arithmetic  is  that  of  substituting 
useful  and  significant  subject-matter  for  the  old  formal  grind  on  indefinite 
preparation  for  something,  sometime,  somewhere — that  is,  substituting  life 
experience  for  verbal  memory.  In  the  long  run,  the  best  preparation  for 
cooperative  living  anywhere  and  everywhere  is  intelligent  participation  in 
the  life  of  one's  own  community.  In  the  case  of  arithmetic,  we  are  now 
reasonably  sure  that  the  general  need  and  the  local  need  are  so  nearly 
identical,  as  to  give  no  cause  for  concern,  so  long  as  there  is  good  teaching 
with  the  use  of  meaningful  material  of  present  and  practical  value  and  of 
local  utility. 


CHAPTER  IV 
SPELLING 

Ernest  Horn,   College   of  Education,  State   University   of  Ioiva,  Iowa   City,  Iowa. 

Chairman 

THERE  ARE  five  main  groups  of  problems  involved  in  the  improve- 
ment of  spelling:  (1)  Making  the  course  of  study,  (2)  Deciding 
what  shall  be  taught  in  each  grade,  (3)  Determining  the  most 
efficient  methods  of  learning  and  teaching,  (4)  Providing  a  satisfactory 
plan  of  measuring  results,  and  (5)  Determining  what  text  to  select,  if  any. 

Each  of  these  groups  of  problems  contains  a  number  of  important  sub- 
problems.  For  example,  in  making  the  course  of  study  one  must  decide: 
(a)  Whether  or  not  spelling  is  to  be  taught  incidentally,  (b)  What  words 
should  be  taught,  (c)  How  these  words  should  be  arranged  or  grouped,  (d) 
How  much  time  should  be  given  to  spelling,  (e)  What,  if  anything,  should 
the  course  of  study  contain  in  addition  to  a  word  list,  and  (f )  What  should 
be  the  relation  of  the  course  of  study  in  spelling  to  the  spelling  which  is  done 
in  the  writing  required  for  other  subjects. 

The  summaries  in  this  chapter  are  limited  to  those  studies  which  bear 
on  the  selection  of  the  words  which  are  to  be  included  in  a  course  of  study 
in  spelling.  This  restriction  was  decided  upon  for  three  reasons:  first, 
the  scientific  data  which  bear  on  this  problem  are  less  well-known  and  less 
available  than  those  bearing  on  the  other  problems;  second,  since  the  space 
allotted  to  spelling  was  limited,  it  seemed  better  to  give  an  adequate  survey 
of  what  has  been  accomplished  in  solving  this  problem  rather  than  to  give 
a  less  adequate  survey  of  a  greater  number  of  problems;  and,  third,  the 
committee,  in  the  brief  time  allowed,  was  not  able  to  complete  a  sufficiently 
critical  analysis  of  the  studies  bearing  on  the  other  problems. 

In  conformity  to  the  procedure  in  the  other  chapters  in  this  Yearbook, 
the  various  investigations  are  organized  under  questions,  the  earliest  in- 
vestigation being  given  first  and  the  others  following  in  chronological  order. 
The  questions  used  for  group  headings  for  the  various  investigations  are 
as  follows: 

I.  What  words  are  most  frequently  written  in  life  outside  the  school? 

a.  In  writing  personal  letters 

b.  In  writing  business  letters 

c.  In    writing    letters    and    other    communications    to    newspapers 

and  magazines 

d.  In  writing  minutes,  resolutions,  and  committee  reports 

e.  By  parents  in  writing  excuses  to  teachers 

f.  In  the  letters  written  by  literary  men 

g.  In  the  correspondence  of  a  single  individual 
h.  In  letters  of  application  and  recommendation  - 

II.  What  words  are  most  frequently  used  in  the  writing  done  in  schools  ? 

a.  In  children's  themes 

b.  In  taking  examinations 

[110] 


The  Third  Yearbook  111 


III.  What  is  the  significance,  for  purposes  of  spelling,  of  the  words  found 
in  investigations? 

a.  Of  the  vocabulary  of  reading 

b.  Of  the  vocabulary  of  speaking 

c.  Of  the  vocabulary  of  other  languages 

d.  Of  the  vocabulary  needed  in  connection  with  other  subjects 

For  data  bearing  on  other  problems  in  spelling  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  digest  and  bibliography  given  in  Chapter  3  of  the  18th  Yearbook, 
Part  II,  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  published  by 
the  Public  School  Publishing  Company,  Bloomington,  Illinois,  and  to 
Tidyman,  W.  F.  The  Teaching  of  Spelling,  World  Book  Company, 
Yonkers-on-Hudson,  New  York,  1919. 

I.  What  Words  are  Most  Frequently  Written  in  Life  Outside  the 

School? 

Study  No.  i.  Chancellor,  W.  E.  "Spelling:  1000  words."  The 
Journal  of  Education,  Boston:  Vol.  71-2.     May,  1910. 

Purpose.  To  find  the   1000  most  important  spelling  words. 

Sources.  Lists  of  words  submitted  by  500  grammar  school  pupils,  each 
list  containing  ten  words  which  the  pupil  thought  most  worth  knowing. 

Letters  which  the  author  had  received  dealing  with  business,  school, 
political,  social,  and  personal  matters. 

Number  of  lists  of  words  submitted  by  pupils:  500 

Number   of   letters    examined:  Not  given 

Number   of   running  words:  Not  given 

Frequencies  of  words  chosen  for  1000-word  list:  Not  given 

Comment.  The  making  of  the  1000-word  list  was  the  culmination  of 
a  series  of  studies  in  spelling  made  by  Dr.  Chancellor.  For  five  years  he 
had  been  studying  the  spelling  situation  in  American  schools.  He  had 
read  one  dictionary  fifteen  times  and  examined  two  others  carefully  and 
annotated  each  for  spelling  purposes.  In  this  way  400,000  words  were 
considered.  In  addition  to  this  work,  he  carefully  examined  nearly  every 
spelling  book  then  on  the  American  market,  looked  through  courses  of  study 
in  spelling,  and  read  every  available  article  on  that  subject  in  current 
periodicals.    Spelling  papers,  written  by  thousands  of  pupils,  were  also  care- 


Special  acknowledgment  is  due  to  the  following  persons  who  kindly  assisted  the  chairman 
in  preparing  summaries   included  in  this  chapter  of  the  Yearbook. 

To  Miss  Cora  Crowder  for  summarizing  her  investigation;  to  Dr.  C.  L.  Robbins  for  summa- 
rizing Andersen's  investigation;  to  Professor  V.  A.  C.  Henmon  for  a  summary  of  the  Kaeding 
investigation  and  also  for  a  summary  of  his  own  investigation;  to  Miss  Annie  McCowen  and 
Miss  Bernice  Orndorff  for  summarizing  the  studies  of  children's  themes  and  for  assistance  in 
preparing  the  manuscript;  to  Dr.  Mary  B.  C.  Byrne  and  Dr.  A.  D.  Yocum  for  submitting  a 
summary  of  their  investigation;  to  Dr.  T.  J.  Kirby  for  summarizing  the  studies  by  Cessander, 
Capps,  and  Lester;  to  Professor  W.  F.  Tidyman  for  assistance  in  summarizing  the  investiga- 
tions of  children's  themes;  to  Dr.  E.  E.  Lewis,  Miss  Florence  Bamberger,  and  Mrs.  Helen 
Gumlick  for  assistance  in  canvassing  various  studies  pertaining  to  the  making  of  the  curriculum 
in  spelling;  to  Professor  M.  V.  O'Shea  for  help  in  summarizing  his  study;  to  Dr.  F.  S. 
Breed  for  the  summary  of  the  study  by  Warning.  A  number  of  other  individuals  sent  in 
valuable,  summaries  bearing  upon  other  phases  of  the  problem  of  spelling,  which  could  not 
be  included  because  of  the  limitations  set  upon  this  chapter. 


112  Department  of  Superintendence 

fully  studied.  As  a  result  of  this  work,  he  made  a  list  of  20,000  words, 
which  he  felt  no  grammar  school  graduate  should  miss.  Different  forms 
of  root  words  were  included  in  this  list. 

Dr.  Chancellor  next  sought  the  answer  to  this  question,  "What  is  the 
number  of  new  spelling  words  that  an  ordinary  pupil  can  acquire?"  Tests 
containing  100  words  of  from  four  to  eleven  letters  each  were  given  to  250 
eighth-grade  pupils.  All  the  words  had  been  taught  in  class  previously. 
The  average  score  was  71  per  cent.  A  similar  test  which  had  been  given 
five  years  before  to  10,000  pupils  showed  almost  the  same  results,  72  per 
cent.  Dr.  Chancellor  concluded,  "I  don't  believe  that  the  average  boy  or 
girl  can  learn  over  75  per  cent  of  4,000  "words  before  grammar  school 
graduation." 

The  impossibility  of  teaching  20,000  words  to  elementary  school  chil- 
dren brought  up  the  problem  of  what  words  were  the  most  useful  of  all. 
It  was  in  an  attempt  to  answer  this  problem  that  Dr.  Chancellor  made  his 
1000-word  list. 

He  asked  each  of  500  grammar  grade  children  to  write  out  independ- 
ently a  list  of  ten  words  that  he  or  she  thought  most  worth  knowing.  These 
lists  were  carefully  examined  in  an  effort  to  obtain  some  guiding  principles 
in  his  work. 

He  next  canvassed  his  own  letters — "a  score  or  two  daily  in  number, 
sometimes  a  hundred" — in  order  to  find  what  words  were  most  frequently 
used.  These  letters  dealt  with  business,  school,  political,  social,  and  per- 
sonal matters. 

Dr.  Chancellor  does  not  state  just  what  methods  were  employed  in 
making  his  1,000-word  list,  but  apparently  no  scientific  tabulation  of  words 
with  their  frequencies  was  attempted.  He  states  that  he  "tried  to  find 
what  words  we  all  need  in  common." 

His  conclusions  were,  "These  are  the  1,000  words  that  the  grammar 
school  graduate  should  be  examined  and  should  attain  90  per  cent  upon. 
These  are  not  only  the  words  he  will  use  most  frequently ;  but  they  are 
also,  according  to  my  finding  in  the  fashion  indicated  in  this  series  of 
articles,  the  written  words  that  when  needed  are  most  needed,  that  when 
needed  appear  indispensable." 

It  is  probable  that  in  doubting  the  ability  of  "the  average  boy  or  girl" 
to  "learn  over  75  per  cent  of  4000  words  before  grammar  grade  gradua- 
tion," Chancellor  underrated  the  efficiency  of  teaching  at  the  time  at  which 
his  article  was  written.  Certainly  we  have  reliable  data  to  show  that, 
using  modern  improved  methods,  it  is  possible  for  "the  average  boy  or  girl" 
by  the  end  of  the  eighth  grade  to  spell  more  than  4000  words  with  an 
accuracy  of  more  than  90  per  cent. 

STUDY  NO.  2.  Ayres,  L.  P.  The  spelling  vocabularies  of  personal 
and  business  letters.     New  York:  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  1913. 

Purpose.  "To  find  out  whether  or  not  there  exists  a  fairly  definite  body 
of  words  so  generally  used  in  ordinary  correspondence  that  they  should 


The  Third  Yearbook  113 

form  the  core  or  basis  of  the  spelling  vocabulary  taught   in   the  lower 
grades  of  our  elementary  schools." 

Source.  Personal  and  business  letters: 

Number  of  running  words  analyzed:  23,629 
Number  of  different  words:  2,001 

Comment.  In  January,  1913,  the  Division  of  Education  of  the  Russell 
Sage  Foundation  analyzed  the  vocabularies  of  2,000  short  business  and 
personal  letters.    Twelve  sources  were  used  as  follows : 

Letters  to  a  firm  doing  a  mail  order  business 

Letters   received  by   a   practicing   physician 

Letters  to  the  query  department  of  a  city  newspaper 

Letters   received  by    a  practicing  lawyer 

Letters  received  by  school  teachers  from  the  parents  of  pupils 

Miscellaneous  business  letters  to  a  publishing  firm 

Letters  received  by  the  secretaries  of  the  Y.  W.  C.  A. 

Letters   received  by   a  playground   association 

Letters   received   by   a   philanthropic   organization 

Personal  family  letters  from  a  large  number  of  sources 

Letters  received  by  a  magazine  conducting  a  query  department 

A  small  but  varied  collection  of  love  letters 

Only  the  first  word  in  each  line  was  tabulated,  or,  according  to  Dr. 
Ayres,  about  one-fifth  of  the  words  contained  in  all  the  letters.  The 
total  number  of  running  words  actually  tabulated  was  23,629.  Only 
2,001  different  words  were  found,  omitting  the  names  of  numbers,  persons, 
and  places.  "The  beginning  and  ending  words,  such  as  'Dear  Sir,'  'Yours 
truly,'  etc.,  were  included  only  in  their  proper  proportions."  The  number 
of  times  various  salutations  and  conclusions  were  found  is  given  in  tabular 
form. 

One  eighth  of  all  the  words  appearing  were  the  three  most  common 
words  I,  the,  and  and.  Nine  common  words  formed  one  fourth  of  the 
aggregate  number  of  words  tabulated.  Forty-three  words  with  their 
repetitions  contributed  one  half  of  the  number  of  words  tabulated.  Table 
6  shows  how  a  small  number  of  words  with  their  repetitions  make  up  a 
large  proportion  of  the  total  running  words  which  Dr.  Ayres  analyzed. 

TABLE  6.— NUMBER  OF  SEPARATE  WORDS  AND  THEIR  AGGREGATE 
NUMBER  OF  APPEARANCES  BY  EIGHTHS  OF  THE  DISTRIBUTION 
AFTER  WORDS  ARE  ARRANGED  IN  DESCENDING  ORDER  OF  FRE- 
QUENCY. 


114  Department  of  Superintendence 

The  bulletin  contains  a  list  of  532  words  which  appeared  in  the  investi- 
gation with  a  frequency  of  six  or  more.  The  frequency  with  which  each 
word  was  found  is  given.  These  words  with  their  repetitions  constitute 
seven-eighths  of  the  23,629  words  tabulated. 

Dr.  Ayres  points  out  the  fact  that  "no  final  conclusions  can  be  drawn 
from  this  study  because  it  is  too  limited  in  scope  to  warrant  them." 

The  chief  importance  of  this  study  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  was  a  pioneer 
investigation.  No  other  single  study  has  been  so  influential  in  creating 
an  interest  in  research  for  determining  the  word  list  in  spelling. 

This  list  of  words  must  not  be  confused  with  the  1,000  words  given  in 
Ayres'  A  Measuring  Scale  for  Ability  in  Spelling.  The  words  in  this 
scale  are  the  result  of  the  compilation  of  the  data  from  a  number  of  in- 
vestigations including  The  Spelling  Vocabulary  of  Personal  and  Business 
Letters.  A  Measuring  Scale  for  Ability  in  Spelling  is  summarized  else- 
where in  this  chapter. 

STUDY  NO.  3.  Studley,  C.  K.,  and  Ware,  Allison.  Common  essen- 
tials in  spelling.    Sacramento,  Calif.  State  Printing  Office,  1914. 

Purpose.  To  "provide  the  teacher  with  suitable  subject-matter  for  a 
common  school  course  in  spelling." 

Source.  ( 1 )  524  words  from  Dr.  Leonard  P.  Ayres'  Spelling  Vocabu- 
laries of  Personal  and  Business  Letters.  (2)  The  840  words  which  oc- 
curred more  than  twice  in  the  study  of  91  Friends'  Letters  by  Miss  Mc- 
Fadden  and  Dr.  Burk.  (3)  Words  collected  and  tabulated  by  the  authors 
from  920  compositions  written  by  city  and  rural  school  children  from 
grades  three  to  eight  of  Chico  District,  California,  aggregating  nearly 
200,000  running  words,  were  inspected  and  3,459  different  words  or  dif- 
ferent forms  of  the  same  word  were  found. 

Number  of  running  words  for  the  compilation:  Not  given 
Number  of  words  chosen  for  the  spelling  list:  3,470 

Comment.  The  authors  do  not  state  whether  the  frequencies  of  the 
different  words  were  kept  or  not.  They  state  that  words  "not  clearly  of 
common  written  use  in  life  were  omitted  in  the  final  compilation." 

An  appendix  of  462  additional  words  to  be  used  as  supplementary 
material  has  been  included  in  the  spelling  book. 

STUDY  NO.  4.  Nicholson,  Anne,  A  speller  for  the  use  of  the  teachers 
of  California.    Sacramento:  Calif.  State  Printing  Office,  1914. 

This  speller  contains,  in  the  appendix,  the  words  from  four  original  in- 
vestigations, a  brief  description  of  which  follows : 

A.  "Burke,  Frederick,  Ninety-one  friends'  letters.  Source:  personal  letters; 
number  of  running  words:  19,288;  number  of  different  words:  752.  Comment: 
There  is  no  description  of  the  manner  in  which  this  list  of  words  was  com- 
piled, but  the  frequencies  are  given.  The  number  of  different  words  is  small 
for  this   number   of  running  words. 

B.  Members  of  the  Parents'  Association.  Normal  Training  School,  San  Jose, 
Calif.     Source:  social  letters;   number  of  running  words:  not  given   (25  letters)  ; 


The  Third  Yearbook  115 


number  of  different  words:  719.     Comment:  An  alphabetical  list  of  the  719  words 
is  given,  but  no  frequencies  are  reported  for  them. 

C.  California  Barrel  Company;  Source:  Business  correspondence — 100  let- 
ters; number  of  running  words:  2412;  number  of  different  words:  665.  Comment: 
The  frequencies  are  given  for  each  word. 

D.  The  Emporium,  San  Francisco,  and  Hale's  Department  Store,  San  Jose, 
California;  Source:  400  business  letters;  number  of  running  words:  10,834;  num- 
ber of  different  words:  1576.  Comment:  the  derived  forms  were  scored  but 
not  reported  separately.  Certain  inflected  and  derived  forms  are  grouped  in  the 
reported  list  under  the  roots  upon  which  they  are  based.  For  this  reason  only 
1058  different  words  are  reported.  The  frequency  for  each  of  these  1058  words 
is  given. 

STUDY  NO.  5.  Cook,  W.  A.,  and  O'Shea,  M.  V.  The  child  and 
his  spelling.     Indianapolis.     The  Bobbs-Merrill  Company,  1914. 

Source.  The  personal  correspondence  of  13  people 

Number  of  running  words:  approximately  200,000 
Number  of  different  words:  5,200 

Comment.  In  Part  II  of  The  Child  and  His  Spelling,  comprising  142 
pages,  are  presented  the  results  of  an  investigation  of  the  number  of  words 
used  by  a  group  of  adults  in  their  written  communications.  The  present 
analysis  deals  only  with  Part  II  of  The  Child  and  His  Spelling. 

In  the  study  of  the  spelling  vocabulary,  the  authors  decided  to  tabulate 
the  words  used  by  thirteen  adults  in  their  correspondence  with  one  an- 
other. Eight  of  the  correspondents  were  women  and  five  of  them  were 
men.  Six  of  them  were  connected  in  family  relationships.  Some  of  them 
had  practically  no  education,  not  having  gone  beyond  the  third  grade  of 
the  elementary  school,  while  others  had  graduated  from  college.  Five 
thousand  words  were  chosen  from  the  letters  of  each  six  correspondents. 
Forty  thousand  words  were  selected  from  the  letters  of  each  of  three 
correspondents.  Six  thousand  words  were  written  by  one  correspondent, 
eight  thousand  by  another,  twenty-four  thousand  by  another,  and  twelve 
thousand  by  another.  The  topics  discussed  in  these  letters  related  to  -a 
great  variety  of  interests  and  activities.  The  authors  claim  that  practically 
every  matter  which  would  be  written  upon  by  the  typical  adult  in  com- 
munication with  his  friends  was  included  in  the  letters  of  the  correspondents 
who  furnished  the  material  for  this  investigation. 

In  the  construction  of  the  spelling  vocabulary,  the  authors  first  tabulated 
separately  the  vocabulary  of  each  of  the  thirteen  correspondents.  This 
was  done  for  the  purpose  of  determining  whether  the  range  in  individual 
cases  differed  greatly  and  what  words  were  common  to  all  the  vocabu- 
laries. It  was  maintained  by  the  authors  that  in  determining  the  spelling 
vocabulary  the  use  of  words  by  all  correspondents  should  be  emphasized 
as  against  the  frequent  usage  of  certain  words  by  a  few  correspondents. 
If  a  given  word  occurs  frequently  in  the  usage  of  a  few  correspondents 
but  if  it  is  also  common  in  the  usage  of  all  correspondents,  it  should  play 
a  more  important  role  in  the  spelling  vocabulary  than  a  word  which  ap- 


116  Department  of  Superintendence 

pears  as  frequently  in  the  totals  but  which  is  not  used  by  all  the  cor- 
respondents. The  authors  found  that  certain  words,  not  many  of  them, 
however,  were  used  excessively  by  one  or  two  correspondents,  and  this 
served  to  give  them  a  prominence  in  the  frequency  of  totals  out  of  all 
proportion  to  their  actual  importance  in  a  spelling  vocabulary. 
Four  lists  of  words  were  finally  constructed: 

1.  List  I  comprises  186  words  used  by  every  one  of  the  thirteen 
correspondents  ; 

2.  List  II  comprises  577  words  which  were  used  by  most  but  not 
all  of  the  correspondents ; 

3.  List  III  comprises  2207  words  which  were  used  by  less  than  a 
majority  of  the  correspondents ; 

4.  List  IV  comprises  2230  words  used  by  only  one  of  the  cor- 
respondents, and  1804  of  these  words 'were  used  only  once  in  the 
entire  correspondence  of  all  of  the  thirteen  writers.  To  put  it 
another  way,  1804  of  the  words  appearing  in  List  IV  were  used 
only  once  in  a  total  of  200,000  words  tabulated. 

In  presenting  these  tables  the  frequency  of  occurrence  of  each  word  is 
shown ;  then  it  is  shown  whether  each  word  appears  in  one  or  more  of 
three  spelling  textbooks  which  were  studied  in  the  investigation.  Further, 
it  is  noted  after  each  word  appearing  in  all  the  lists  whether  the  word 
occurs  in  the  spelling  vocabulary  constructed  by  Ayres  and  by  Chancellor 
as  a  consequence  of  their  investigation  of  the  spelling  needs  of  pupils. 

Tables  were  constructed  showing: 

1.  Words  which  were  used  by  all  the  women  and  all  the  men  cor- 
respondents ; 

2.  Words  which  were  used  by  most  but  not  all  of  the  men  and  women 
correspondents ; 

3.  Words  used  principally  by  women  correspondents ; 

4.  Words  used  principally  by  men  correspondents. 
Proper  names  were  tabulated  separately. 

1.  In  the  total  of  200,000  words  examined  there  were  1209  different 
proper  names  with  a  total  of  9740  occurrences. 

2.  In  treating  the  proper  names,  words  that  were  identical  in  spelling 
except  for  a  final  s  were  counted  as  a  single  word. 

3.  Nicknames,  diminutives,  and  personal  idiosyncracies  in  spelling 
names  were  all  reduced  to  standard  forms. 

4.  Envelope  addresses  were  included  in  the  tabulation. 

5.  Local  publications,  organizations,  streets,  and  family  names,  ex- 
cept those  of  historical  characters  or  prominent  persons,  were 
excluded  from  the  lists. 

The  authors  determined  to  see  to  what  extent  the  words  which  they 
found  occurring  most  frequently  in  the  material  examined  were  found  in 
three  spelling  textbooks  in  general  use  in  the  schools.  It  was  found  that 
65  per  cent  of  the  words  given  in  the  spelling  textbooks  did  not  occur 


The  Third  Yearbook  117 


in  the  spelling  vocabulary  based  upon  the  letters  written  by  corres- 
pondents. However,  70  per  cent  of  the  words  appearing  in  all  the 
spellers  appear  also  in  the  lists  constructed  by  the  authors  to  constitute 
a  spelling  vocabulary:  27  per  cent  of  the  words  in  List  I,  33  per  cent  of 
those  in  List  II,  28  per  cent  of  those  in  List  III,  and  12  per  cent  of  those 
in  List  IV  are  found  in  the  spelling  textbooks.  No  proper  name  was 
found  in  all  the  textbooks. 

This  investigation  is  one  of  a  very  few  which  throw  light  on  the  nature 
and  extent  of  vocabularies  of  individual  letter-writers. 

STUDY  NO.  6.  Ayres,  L.  P.  A  measuring  scale  for  ability  in  spelling. 
New  York:  The  Russell  Sage  Foundation.     1915. 

Purpose.  To  develop  "a  scale  for  measuring  attainment  in  the  spelling 
of  common  words." 

Source.  A  compilation  of  the  four  most  extensive  studies  made  up  to 
that  time  "to  identify  the  words  most  commonly  used  in  different  sorts  of 
English  writing." 

Number  of  running  words  analyzed  was  approximately :  386,000 
Number  of  words  selected:  1,000 

Comment.  Although  this  study  was  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  mak- 
ing a  spelling  scale,  it  is  useful  for  the  purposes  of  this  chapter  since  it  con- 
tained a  compilation  of  four  investigations.  The  work  was  begun  in  1914 
by  the  Division  of  Education  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation.  The  first 
step  was  to  determine  a  list  of  common  words.  These  words  were  finally 
chosen  by  combining  the  results  of  four  studies. 

"The  first  of  these  studies  was  published  by  the  Rev.  J.  Knowles  in 
London,  England,  in  1904  in  a  pamphlet,  The  London  Point  System  of 
Reading  for  the  Blind.  The  author  says  of  it,  'Taking  passages  from  the 
English  Bible  and  from  various  authors,  containing  100,000  words,  a  list 
was  made  of  the  353  words  which  occurred  most  frequently,  and  the 
number  of  times  each  occurred  was  noted.' 

"The  second  of  the  studies  was  made  by  R.  C.  Eldridge,  of  Niagara 
Falls,  New  York,  and  the  results  were  published  in  1911  in  a  pamphlet, 
Six  Thousand  Common  English  Words.  Mr.  Eldridge  made  an  analysis 
of  the  vocabularies  of  250  different  articles  taken  from  four  issues  of  four 
Sunday  newspapers  published  in  Buffalo.  He  found  that  they  contained 
a  vocabulary  of  6002  different  words,  which  with  their  repetitions  made  an 
aggregate  of  43,989  running  words.  He  reported  the  number  of  times 
that  each  word  appeared. 

"The  third  study  was  conducted  by  the  present  writer  in  1913  and  the 
results  were  published  by  the  Division  of  Education  of  the  Russell  Sage 
Foundation  in  a  monograph,  The  Spelling  Vocabularies  of  Personal  and 
Business  Letters.  The  study  consisted  of  the  tabulation  of  23,629  words 
from  2000  short  letters  written  by  2000  people.     The   total  vocabulary 


118  Department  of  Superintendence 

used  was  found  to  consist  of  2001  different  words  and  the  number  of 
appearances  of  each  was  reported. 

"The  last  of  these  four  studies  was  carried  through  by  W.  A.  Cook 
and  M.  V.  O'Shea  and  the  results  presented  in  1914  in  a  book,  The  Child 
and  His  Spelling,  published  by  the  Bobbs-Merrill  Company.  This  study 
consisted  of  the  tabulation  of  some  200,000  words  taken  from  the  family 
correspondence  of  13  adults.  The  total  vocabulary  was  found  to  consist 
of  5200  different  words  and  the  number  of  times  each  occurred  was  re- 
ported." 

In  addition  to  determining  the  thousand  words  which  are  used  in  his 
spelling  scale,  Dr.  Ayres  makes  the  following  comments : 

1.  About  nine  words  recur  so  frequently  that  they  constitute  in  the  aggregate 
one  fourth  of  the  whole  number  of  words  written,  while  about  50  words  constitute 
with  their  repetitions  one-half  of  all  the  words  we  write.  With  the  exception 
of  very,  these   words   are   all   monosyllables. 

2.  At  first  the  purpose  was  to  identify  the  2000  most  commonly  used  words,  but 
this  project  was  abandoned  because  it  was  soon  found  to  be  impossible  of  realiza- 
tion. It  is  easily  possible  to  identify  the  10  commonest  words  in  written  English. 
These  are  probably  the,  and,  of,  to,  I,  a,  in,  that,  you,  for.  With  their  repetitions 
they  constitute  more  than  one-fourth  of  all  the  words  we  write.  Save  for  the  per- 
sonal pronouns,  they  are  essential  in  writing  about  any  subject,  whatever  its  nature, 
from  Aaron  through  zythum.  It  is  likewise  possible  to  identify  the  50  commonest 
words,  for,  like  the  first  10,  they  are  true  construction  words  and  necessary  no 
matter  what  the  nature  of  the  subject  under  consideration.  With  progressively 
decreasing  reliability  the  list  may  be  extended  to  include  the  £00  commonest  words 
and  possibly  the  1000  commonest,  but  not  the  2000  commonest,  for  long  before  this 
point  is  reached  the  identity  of  the  frequently  used  words  varies  according  to  the 
subject   under   consideration. 

It  should  be  pointed  out  that  two  of  the  investigations  used  in  this 
compilation  deal  with  reading,  and  two  with  spelling.  Moreover,  200,000 
of  the  223.629  running  words  of  writing  vocabularies  are  taken  from  the 
Cook  and  O'Shea  investigation  which  is  based  on  the  family  correspondence 
of  thirteen  adults.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  later  investigations 
have  shown  that  only  about  two  thirds  of  the  thousand  words  of  this  scale 
are  really  among  the  first  thousand  most  frequently  used.  On  the  other 
hand,  about  95  per  cent  of  the  words  are  shown,  by  more  recent  investiga- 
tions, to  be  used  frequently  enough  to  be  included  in  a  course  of  study 
in  spelling. 

It  is  interesting  also  to  note  that  the  available  data,  aggregating  over 
four  and  a  half  million  running  words,  bring  changes  in  Ayres'  conclusions 
'  as  to  the  10,  50,  100,  and  500  commonest  words. 

Although  this  chapter  does  not  deal  with  spelling  scales,  it  should  be 
pointed  out  here  that  this  1000  word  scale  has  been  more  influential  than 
any  other  study  in  stimulating  interest  in  the  measurement  of  spelling. 

STUDY  NO.  7.  Andersen,  W.  N.  Determination  of  a  spelling  vocab- 
ulary based  upon  written  correspondence.  Iowa  City:  Univ.  of  Iowa 
Studies  in  Education,  Vol.  II,  No.  1,  1917. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


119 


Purpose.  ( 1 )  To  show  comparatively  the  number  of  words  common 
to  the  writing  vocabularies  of  persons  in  various  callings,  (2)  to  show 
the  extent  and  range  of  vocabularies  used  by  persons  in  certain  callings, 
(3)  to  point  out  the  educational  significance  of  the  findings,  and  (4)  inci- 
dentally to  discover  what  words  are  commonly  misspelled. 

Source.  Personal  and  business  letters  (3723  in  number)  written  by 
adults  in  Iowa,  more  than  35  different  occupations  being  represented. 

Number  of  running  words:   361,184 
Number  of  different  words:       9,223 

Comment.  Seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth-grade  pupils  in  23  towns  and 
cities  in  Iowa  were  asked  to  collect  letters  received  by  their  parents  and 
friends. 

The  preliminary  scoring  was  done  by  pupils  under  the  supervision  of 
superintendents  and  teachers  after  practice  had  been  given  to  established 
skill  in  the  use  of  the  method  prescribed.  The  final  work  was  done  by 
the  investigator  with  the  aid  of  four  trained  adult  assistants.  The  tab- 
ulations made  by  pupils  included  the  following  items : 

All    misspelled    words 

Number  of  letters  analyzed  in  making  the  list 

Occupation  and  sex  of  person  who  wrote  the  letter 

Occupation  and  sex  of  person  who  received  the  letter 

Alphabetical  arrangement  of  all  words.  (Every  word  of  different  spelling  was 
counted  as  a  different  word,  except  where  the  word  was  pluralized  by  adding  "s" 
only.  Such  words  were  recorded  as  singular.  All  proper  nouns,  except  days  of 
the  week,  names  of  the  months,  holidays,  and  nationalities  were  excluded.) 

Name  of  pupil,  grade,    and   town. 

In  the  final  tabulation  no  attention  was  paid  to  the  sex  of  persons  writing 
or  receiving  the  letters  and  all  occupations  were  classified  under  six  heads 
as  shown  in  the  table  below : 

Comparative  Vocabulary  Range  of  Different  Groups 


Calling 

Letters 

Running    Words 
85,161 

Different    Words 

Professional 

824 

5,368 

Business 

1,202 

112,363 

4,105 

Domestic 

700 

61,368 

3,280 

Miscellaneous 

688 

73,001 

5,861 

Personal 

149 

14,778 

1,980 

Farmers 

160 

14,513 

1,754 

Totals 

3,723 

361,184 

9,223 

Words  used  only  once  (3217  in  number)  constituted  about  9  per  cent 
of  the  running  words  and  about  35  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  differ- 
ent words.  Incidentally,  Andersen  found  126  words  misspelled  two  or 
more  times,  and  ten  more  than  ten  times  each.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  many  spelling  errors  were  overlooked  by  the  pupils  in  their  tabula- 


120  Department  of  Superintendence 

tions.  There  were  few  words  peculiar  to  any  of  the  callings  represented, 
and  these  occurred  but  infrequently.  The  tabulation  by  classes  shows,  how- 
ever, that  a  really  comprehensive  list  can  be  obtained  only  by  a  very  wide 
sampling. 

From  a  total  of  approximately  361,184  running  words,  a  list  of  3087 
was  made  by  selecting  only  those  which  occurred  in  three  or  more  of  the 
six  groups  and  which  also  had  a  frequency  of  five  or  more.  The  frequency 
of  occurrence  and  spread  of  distribution  are  given  for  each  word.  This 
list  has  been  based  upon  a  reasonably  good  sampling  of  letters  from  all 
classes  of  people  in  all  parts  of  one  state.  The  method  of  securing  such  a 
sampling  is  the  most  important  contribution  made  by  the  investigation.  It 
is  peculiarly  valuable  since  no  selective  factor  operates  to  eliminate  any 
group  of  letter  writers.  The  plan  by  which  pupils  did  the  preliminary 
scoring  seems  to  have  been  economical  and  quite  satisfactory  when  checked 
later  by  trained  adults.  The  group  divisions  did  not,  as  Andersen  himself 
notes,  yield  results  that  led  to  adequate  or  profitable  comparisons. 

STUDY  NO.  8.  Pryor,  H.  C.  "A  suggested  minimal  spelling  list," 
Sixteenth  Yearbook,  p.  73.  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education, 
Bloomington,  111.:  Public  School  Pub.  Co.,  1917. 

Purpose.  To  determine  "more  definitely  what,  and  how  many  words 
should  be  included  in  a  minimal  spelling  list." 

Source.  A  study  and  compilation  were  made  of  the  following  spelling 
tests  and  word  lists: 

1.  Concrete  investigation  of  the  material  of  English  spelling  and  the  child's  own 

spelling   hook.     Franklin   W.  Jones. 

2.  Common  essentials  in  spelling.     C.  K.  Studley  and  Allison  Ware. 

3.  The  need  of  intensive  work  in  spelling  (unpublished).    Algar  Woolfolk. 

4.  A   list   of   words    compiled    from   children's    compositions   by    Homer   J.    Smith, 

published  in  The  child  and  his  spelling,  by  Cook  and  O'Shea. 

5.  List  of  spelling  words.    Prepared  by  the  teachers  and  supervisors  of  the  public 

schools    of   Johnstown,    Pa. 

6.  "Spelling   in   the   Boston   public   schools."      McCray's   Magazine,   March,    1915. 

7.  Measuring  scale  for  ability  in  spelling.     Leonard  P.  Ayres. 

8.  Champion  spelling  book.     Warren  E.  Hicks. 

9.  One  thousand  words.     W.  E.  Chancellor. 

10.  The  child  and  his  spelling,  a  list  chosen  from  personal  correspondence.     W.  A. 

Cook   and  M.  V.  O'Shea. 

11.  Six  thousand  common  English  words.     R.  C.  Eldridge. 

Only  eleven  lists  are  given,  but. by  implication  Dr.  Ayres'  list  of  542 
commonest  words  in  his  study  of  The  spelling  vocabularies  of  personal  and 
business  letters  is  counted  separately  from  his  Measuring  scale  for  ability 
in  spelling. 

Number  of  running  words:  The  author  gives  no  estimate. 

Number    of    words    checked:    The    author    states    that    "altogether    about    30,000 
words  were  checked,"  which  apparently  means  30,000  different  words. 
Number   of   words   chosen:    1478. 


The  Third  Yearbook  121 

Comment.  "After  the  lists  had  been  selected,  each  one  was  numbered 
and  all  the  words  were  checked  off  in  a  dictionary.  The  figure  'one'  was 
placed  before  every  word  in  the  dictionary  which  occurred  in  the  Eldridge 
list.  'Two'  was  placed  before  each  word  that  was  found  in  the  Jones  list. 
The  other  ten  lists  were  checked  against  the  dictionary  in  the  same  fashion. 
Altogether,  about  30,000  words  were  checked.  By  far  the  greater  number 
occurred  in  only  one  list,  a  somewhat  smaller  number  in  two  lists,  and  so 
on  down  to  121  that  were  common  to  10  lists,  54  common  to  11  lists,  and 
only  9 — namely,  again,  any,  believe,  look,  many,  money ,  remember,  there, 
and  through  that  were  found  in  all  of  the  lists. 

"It  was  arbitrarily  decided  to  include  in  the  final  list  all  words  which 
occurred  in  at  least  six  of  the  twelve  lists  examined;  there  were  1309  such 
words.  To  this  number  were  added  169  words  from  the  Ayres  scale  which 
were  not  among  these  1309  words,  making  a  total  of  1478  words." 

The  words  were  arranged  by  grades  by  the  following  method:  Eight 
different  graded  lists  were  examined — namely,  the  California  and  Johns- 
town spellers,  Hick's  Champion  spelling  book,  the  Boston,  New  Orleans, 
Richmond,  Smith,  and  Woolfolk  lists.  "Each  word  in  the  entire  list  was 
assigned  to  the  grade  agreed  upon  by  the  majority  of  authors  investigated, 
although  in  some  cases  the  placing  appeared  to  be  pedagogically  unsound. 
Some  words,  about  whose  location  there  was  an  exact  division  of  opinion, 
were  placed  in  the  lowest  grade  mentioned.  The  distribution  was  as 
follows : 

343  words 

408       " 

216       " 

187       " 

157      " 

131       " 
Grade  VIII       38       " 

Professor  Pryor's  evaluation  of  the  graded  list  is:  "Obviously,  many  of 
the  words,  such  as  am,  are  not  properly  placed  and  therefore  the  list  is  not 
the  best  for  school  purposes." 

The  technic  of  the  investigation  is  marred  by  including  the  Eldridge  list, 
which  is  not  a  writing  vocabulary,  and  the  list  from  the  Champion  Speller, 
which  is  very  poor  in  its  vocabulary.1  However,  since  no  word  was  taken 
unless  it  occurred  in  at  least  six  investigations,  the  results  are  not  much 
affected  by  these  defects  in  procedure.  Indeed,  except  for  grading,  this  list 
was  probably  one  of  the  best  in  print  at  the  time  of  its  publication. 

STUDY  NO.  9.  Houser,  J.  D.  "An  investigation  of  the  writing 
vocabularies  of  representatives  of  an  economic  class."  Elementary  School 
Journal,  Volume  17,  1916-1917,  pp.  708-718. 


Grade 

II 

Grade 

III 

Grade 

IV 

Grade 

V 

Grade 

VI 

Grade 

VII 

1  Woody,  Clifford.     "Application  of  scientific  method  in  evaluating  subject  matter  of  spell- 
ers."    Journal  of  Educational  Research,  Vol.   I,   pp.    1 18-128. 


122  Department  of  Superintendence 

Purpose.  To  discover  the  vocabulary  used  in  letters  written  by  farmers 
about  farming. 

Source.  750  letters  written  by  farmers  to  the  Agricultural  Department 
of  the  University  of  California. 

Number  of  running  words:  approximately  65,500 
Number  of  different  words:  1,869 

Comment.  It  should  be  pointed  out  that  this  investigation  was  limited 
to  one  vocation,  since  it  includes  only  letters  written  by  farmers  to  professors 
of  agriculture  about  farm  problems. 

816  of  the  1869  words  were  used  but  once.  A  list  of  all  words  found 
five  or  more  times  is  given.  Words  found  in  this  list,  but  not  in  the  Ayres 
list,  are  printed  irx  italics.  The  investigator  correctly  points  out  the  fact 
that  this  does  not  necessarily  mean  these  words  are  peculiar  to  farmers' 
letters  since  they  might  easily  occur  outside  of  the  words  in  the  Ayres  list. 

STUDY  NO.  io.  Clarke,  W.  F.  "Writing  vocabularies."  Elemen- 
tary School  Journal ,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  349-51.    January,  1921. 

Purpose.  To  find  out  whether  or  not  the  spelling  vocabularies  based  on 
recent  investigations  and  proposed  for  use  in  the  public  schools,  actually 
contain  the  words  pupils  in  the  public  schools  will  need  in  later  life. 

Source.  2000  letters  written  to  the  editor  taken  from  the  columns  of  a 
large  Chicago  daily  paper. 

Number    of    running    words :  28,292 
Number  of   different   words :     3,360 

Comment.  Mr.  Clarke  says  that  in  the  Ayres  1000-word  list  there  are 
117  common  words  such  as  five,  rain,  hat,  top,  dress,  etc.,  which  should  have 
occurred  in  the  Chicago  list  at  least  three  times,  and  many  of  them  oftener, 
but  which  did  not  occur  even  once.  237  very  common  and  non-technical 
words  such  as  add,  hay,  idle,  pint,  farmer,  etc.  which  occurred  four  or  more 
times  in  the  Chicago  list  are  not  in  the  Ayres  list.  108  common  words 
such  as  worse,  owner,  loyal,  rich,  etc.  which  occurred  four  or  more  times  in 
the  Chicago  list  were  not  in  the  lists  in  the  speller. 

He  believes  that  these  facts  cast  doubt  upon  the  reliability  of  two 
assumptions : 

1.  That,  because  a  word  occurs  twelve  times  in  a  few  lists  of  100,000  running 
words  each,  it  may  be  expected  to  recur  similiarly  in  any  other  list  compiled 
in  the  same  manner. 

2.  That  a  list  of  words  occurring  twelve  or  more  times  in  a  few  lists  of  100,- 
000  running  words  will  contain  all  the  words  apt  to  occur  in  other  lists  of  this  kind. 

The  author's  conclusion  is  that  present  lists  of  words  proposed  for  spell- 
ing vocabularies  are  inadequate  for  the  needs  of  the  average  person.  This 
inadequacy  is  due,  the  writer  believes,  to  an  insufficient  regard  for  im- 
portant geographical  and  social  factors.  "Numerous  other  like  studies 
should  be  made  covering  the  writing  vocabulary  of  many  more  people  in 


The  Third  Yearbook 


123 


widely   scattered   and    representative   localities   and    of    diverse    but    repre- 
sentative social  groups." 

The  author's  emphasis  upon  the  need  for  more  extensive  and  more 
representative  word  counts  is  well-founded.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
more  extensive  counts  of  letters  written  to  newspapers  and  magazines 
indicate  that  the  vocabulary  of  such  letters  differs  somewhat  from  that  of 
personal  or  business  letters. 

STUDY  NO.  ii.  Horn,  Ernest.  "The  spelling  vocabularies  of  bankers' 
letters."     English  Journal,  Vol.  XII,  No.  6,  June,  1923. 

Purpose.  To  answer  two  questions:  "First,  is  there  a  need  for  a  special 
spelling  list  for  those  who  write  letters  about  banking;  second,  do  the 
correspondence  needs  of  bankers  vary  according  to  locality?" 

Source.  Bank  letters 

Number  of  letters  scored:  1,125 
Number  of  running  words:  67,531 
Number  of  different  words :  2,623 

Comment.  Letters — in  number  1125 — written  by  bankers  to  the  Na- 
tional City  Bank,  New  York  City,  about  banking,  were  tabulated.  These 
letters  were  chosen  by  a  sampling  of  the  correspondence  of  fifteen  states 
grouped  so  as  to  represent  various  sections  of  the  country.  The. distribution 
of  the  letters  is  shown  in  Table  7 : 

TABLE    7.— DISTRIBUTION    OF    THE    CORRESPONDENCE    OF    FIFTEEN 

STATES 


Sections 

Number  of 
Letters 

Running 
Words 

Different 
Words 

50 
200 
125 
125 

50 
200 

50 
300 

25 

2,689 
8,462 
9,298 

14,520 
2,475 
8,238 
2,571 

16,758 

2,570 

509 

975 

1,200 

1,306 

Southern 

485 
954 

572 

1,432 

Iowa  (scored  separately  in  addition  to  125 

553 

Total 

1,125 

67,581 

2,623 

With  the  exception  of  the  pronoun  /  and  the  article  a  all  words  occurring 
in  these  letters  were  tabulated.  All  derived  forms  were  scored  separately. 
The  2,623  words  found  in  this  analysis  were  compared  with  the  vocabu- 
lary of  general  correspondence.  The  vocabulary  of  .each  section  was  also 
compared  with  that  of  other  sections.    The  investigator's  conclusions  are: 

"Summarizing,  this  study  does  not  show  that  the  words  used  in  bankers' 
correspondence  apply  at  all  exclusively  to  the  banking  business,  and  yet  the 
list  is  in  a  certain  sense  a  vocational  list.  The  highly  inflected  character  of 
the  words  does  indicate  that  those  who  are  to  dictate  or  to  type  letters  in 


124  Department  of  Superintendence 


banking  should  have  more  than  an  average  education.  Those  who  are  to 
dictate  should  be  able  to  express  themselves  courteously  and  with  great 
precision,  and  those  who  are  to  take  dictation  should  be  trained  accordingly. 
A  training  which  will  meet  the  needs  in  one  section  of  the  country  will  also 
meet  the  needs  in  other  sections." 

STUDY  NO.  12.  Crowder,  Cora.  A  study  of  the  spelling  vocabulary 
of  representative  businesses  of  Saint  Paul  and  Minneapolis,  Master's  Thesis, 
University  of  Minnesota,  1924. 

Purpose.  To  determine  (a)  what  words  are  most  commonly  used  by 
writers  of  business  letters,  (b)  what  is  the  relationship  of  such  words  to 
those  needed  in  writing  personal  letters. 

Source.  2258  letters  from  nine  types  of  business 

Number  of   running  words    analyzed:   Approximately   200,000 
Number   of   different  words:  5,088 

Comment.  This  investigation  was  carried  on  over  a  period  of  two  years 
from  1922  to  1924.    The  separate  sources  of  the  words  are  as  follows: 

Manufacturing  and  printing  of  advertising  specialties 

Mail    order    business 

Life  insurance 

Fur    manufacturing 

Wholesale  dealers  in  drugs   and   druggists'   supplies 

Wholesale    grocers 

Boot   and   shoe   manufacturers 

Wholesale  dry  goods 

Manufacturing   men's    furnishings 

With  the  exceptions  noted  below,  all  words  in  the  body  of  every  letter 
were  arranged  alphabetically  with  the  total  number  of  times  that  each 
word  occurred  in  the  whole  investigation  as  well  as  the  number  of  times 
in  each  business.  As  to  duplicate  letters,  only  one  copy  was  tabulated,  since 
it  represented  only  one  dictation.  Words  of  the  same  spelling  but  different 
meanings  were  listed  as  one  word.  Plurals  in  .$•  were  counted  as  different 
words,  as  were  all  derived  forms. 

The  exceptions  to  the  above  procedure  were  the  omission  of  (a)  geo- 
graphical names  when  used  as  such,  (b)  all  names  of  persons  and  firms,  (c) 
salutations  and  complimentary  closes,  (d)  all  words  of  two  letters  (e)  its, 
ours,  may,  been  and  bad,  (f)  the  sixty  commonest  words  after  Horn.1  This 
study  contains  an  alphabetical  list  of  the  words  found  arranged  in  table  form 
to  show  (a)  the  scale  location  according  to  Ayres,  (b)  words  not  found 
in  Webster's  New  International  Dictionary,  1923,  (c)  the  frequency  of 
each  word  in  each  type  of  correspondence,  and  (d)  the  total  frequency  of 
each  word  in  the  study. 


1  Ernest    Horn.    University    of    Iowa,    1921.      A    compilation    of   the   commonest    words   from 
twelve  investigations  of  spelling  vocabularies.      (Unpublished.) 


The  Third  Yearbook  125 


Subsidiary  questions  discussed  in  this  study  are  as  follows:  (a)  What 
evidence  is  there  of  a  distinctive  vocabulary  for  each  type  of  business? 
(b)  How  much  of  specialization  is  observable?  (c)  To  what  extent  does 
technical  terminology  color  business  vocabulary?  (d)  Is  there  a  diver- 
gence between  the  vocabulary  of  commercial  correspondence  and  a  compo- 
site reading  vocabulary  ? 

From  comparisons  between  this  and  other  studies  the  following  con- 
clusions are  presented:  "The  vocabulary  as  found  in  the  investigations  of 
business  correspondence  is  of  a  decidedly  general  character.  It  is  compara- 
tively simple  as  to  spelling  difficulty.  There  is  little  evidence  of  distinctive 
vocabularies  for  each  type  of  business.  A  comprehensive,  composite  word 
list  based  upon  actual  tabulations  of  correspondence  is  the  logical  source 
from  which  to  draw  the  subject-matter  for  teaching  the  spelling  of  business 
correspondence. 

"Matters  of  style,  recurrent  phrases,  the  relative  frequency  of  certain 
words  characteristically  stamp  any  one  sort  of  correspondence  without 
materially  altering  the  basic  word  list.  One  would  not  confuse  the  sources 
of  farmers'  letters  and  bankers'  letters  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  there  are 
relatively  few  words  appearing  in  the  one  sort  which  do  not  appear  in  the 
other. 

"The  'generalness'  of  the  vocabulary  may  be  accounted  for  in  four  ways. 
In  the  first  place,  the  greater  the  number  of  sources  we  study,  the  more 
of  overlapping  there  appears  between  different  lists.  Words  which  appear 
to  be  vocational  or  technical  in  one  list  appear  in  another-  list  with  a 
somewhat  figurative  meaning  or  in  an  original  and  unspecialized  us- 
age.  .   .   . 

"In  the  third  place,  the  choice  of  words  is  conditioned  by  the  most  im- 
portant of  limiting  factors,  the  man  ivho  reads  them.  By  and  large,  he  is 
not  a  technician.  Hence  the  correspondent  writes  to  him  on  the  plane  of 
his  interest  and  in  the  general  vocabulary  of  the  laity. 

"The  fourth  influence  toward  a  general  as  opposed  to  a  technical  style 
of  correspondence  is  the  prevalence  of  ordering  by  catalog  number  instead 
of  by  name  and  description  of  the  article. 

"As  to  the  amount  of  specialization  and  technical  terminology,  we  are 
forced  to  conclude  that  there  is  relatively  little.  The  various  investigations 
show  a  small  amount.  There  are  few  words  in  any  one  line  of  business 
which  show  a  technical  character  when  the  list  is  compared  with  a  composite 
list  of  the  several  lines  investigated." 

From  the  statistical  treatment  given  the  data,  it  is  concluded  that  a  com- 
posite spelling  vocabulary  of  high  reliability  for  the  needs  of  business 
correspondence  can  be  compiled  from  the  correspondence  of  various  busi- 
ness enterprises. 

Table  8,  showing  the  divergence  between  a  composite  reading  vocab- 
ulary and  that  of  commercial  correspondence,  is  here  given,  "la"  indi- 
cates the  first  500  words  in  order  of  frequency;  "lb"  indicates  the  second 
500  words;  "2a"  indicates  the  first  half  of  the  second  thousand  words,  etc. 


126 


Department  of  Superintendence 


The  Thorndike  list  is  a  composite  of  the  10,000  words  which  occur  most 
frequently  in  a  total  of  4,565,000  words  about  one  ninth  of  which  are 
derived  from  general  correspondence  and  the  rest  from  reading. 

While  the  tendency  of  these  first  five  hundred  words  of  the  present 
study  to  appear  early  in  both  lists  is  very  marked,  it  is  far  more  con- 
sistent in  the  correspondence  or  Horn  list.  There  is  an  evident  divergence 
between  the  vocabularies  of  commercial  correspondence  and  general  read- 
ing.   However,  many  of  the  104  words  not  found  in  the  Thorndike  list  are 

TABLE  8.— FIRST  500  WORDS  OF  THE  PRESENT  STUDY  COMPARED  FOR 
FREQUENCY  LOCATION  WITH  HORN1  AND  THORNDIKE2 


Horn 

Thorndike 

la 

260 

104 

53 

31 

12 

9 

3 

3 

5 

2 

10 

8 

177 

lb 

74 

2a 

46 

2b 

16 

3a 

20 

3b 

17 

4a 

4 

4b 

6 

5a 

10 

5b 

8 

6 

18 

0 

104 

Total '. 

500 

500 

1  Horn,  Ernest.     University  of  Iowa,  1923.      A  compilation  of  the  commonest  words  from  twelve 
investigations  of  spelling  vocabularies.     (Unpublished.) 

2  Thorndike,  E.  L.     The  teachers  word  book.     New  York:     Columbia  University,  1921. 

probably  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  certain  derived  forms  are  not 
reported  separately  in  that  list.  The  closeness  of  agreement  between  the 
two  correspondence  lists  is  an  argument  for  the  reliability  of  a  basic  spell- 
ing vocabulary  for  correspondence  that  is  derived  from  a  sufficient  sampling 
of  sources. 


STUDY  NO.  13.  Warning,  Winifred  C.  An  investigation  of  the 
word  usage  of  adults  in  written  correspondence.  This  vocabulary  was  col- 
lected in  1913-1917  and  has  not  yet  been  published. 

Purpose.  To  secure  data  on  adult  spelling  needs. 

Source.  Written  correspondence  of  adults,  containing,  letters  from  9 
different  sources : 

1.  Letters    received    by    a    university   housing   bureau,    library,    dean's    office,    and 

business  office,   200   in  number,  yielding   16,337   running  words. 

2.  Letters    received  by   a    large   dry  goods,  firm,   including  mail   orders    and   gen- 

eral correspondence,   500   in  number,  yielding  32,375   running  words. 

3.  Letters  received  by  a  real  estate  firm,  300  in  number,  yielding  21,067  running 

words. 

4.  Letters   received  by   a  business  college,   100  in   number,  yielding   8386   running 

words. 

5.  Letters  received  by  a  newspaper  office,   100  in  number,  yielding  8467   running 

words. 


The  Third  Yearbook  127 


6.  Letters  received  by  a  seed  store,  100  in  number,  yielding  7316  running  words. 

7.  Letters    from    the    general    correspondence    of    a    prominent    educator,    300    in 

number,   yielding   27,852    running   words. 

8.  Form  letters,  200  in  number,  yielding  33,945  running  words. 

9.  Personal  letters,  550  in  number,  yielding  153,642  running  words. 

Total    number    of   letters  2,350 

Total   number   of   running   words  309,387 

Total  number  of  different  words  on  a  dictionary  basis  -6,682 

Total    number    of    different    words  10,107 

Numbers  and  the  names  of  persons  were  omitted  from  the  tabulations. 

The  entire  study  is  the  work  of  one  person.  Comparisons  with  the  re- 
sults of  other  similar  investigations  are  now  being  made,  report  of  which 
will  appear  at  a  later  date. 

From  the  nature  and  extent  of  this  investigation  it  seems  likely  to  be 
an  important  addition  to  similar  data  secured  by  other  investigators. 

STUDY  NO.  14.  Curtis,  Ethel.  A  study  of  the  correspondence  of  a 
single  individual  over  a  period  of  eight  years.     (As  yet  unpublished.) 

Purpose.  As  indicated  in  the  title. 

Number  of  running  words:    230,000 

Number  of  different  words:       6,512    (exclusive  of  proper  nouns) 

Comment.  This  study  was  undertaken  in  order  to  discover  the  extent 
of  the  vocabulary  of  a  single  individual.  The  letters  were  taken  from  the 
files  of  a  superintendent  of  schools  in  a  small  city.  Although  letters  aggre- 
gating over  200,000  running  words  were  analyzed,  there  was  no  indication 
that  the  limits  of  this  individual's  vocabulary  had  been  reached. 

STUDY  NO.  15.  Horn,  Ernest.  "10,000  Words  Most  Commonly 
Used  in  Writing."  State  University  of  Iowa  Studies  in  Education  (in 
preparation). 

Purpose.  To  determine  the  words  most  often  needed  in  the  writing 
done  in  life  outside  the  school  by  compiling  together  all  existing  data  con- 
cerning adult  writing  needs. 

Sources.   1.  The  following  investigations  by  the  author: 

a.  Vocabulary    of   Business    Letters 

b.  The  Vocabulary  of  Letters  Written  by  Literary  Men 

c.  The  Vocabulary  of  Correspondence  of  a  Personal  Nature 

d.  The  Vocabulary  of  Letters  of  Application  and  Recommendation 

e.  The  Vocabulary  of  Material  Contributed  by  Laymen  to  Newspapers   and  Mag- 

azines 

f.  The  Vocabulary  of  Minutes,  Sets  of  Resolutions,  and  Reports  of  Committees 

g.  The  Vocabulary  of  Excuses  Written  by  Parents  to  Teachers 

n.  A  Compilation  of  certain  investigations  made  previous  to  1922,  including  the 
investigations  (summarized  elsewhere  in  this  chapter)  by  Andersen,  Ayres, 
Cook  and  O'Shea,  and  Burke.  In  addition  it  includes  an  unpublished  study, 
by  the  author,  of  100,000  running  words  of  highly  personal  correspondence. 


128 


Department  of  Superintendence 


2.  Curtis,  Ethel.  "A  study  of  the  correspondence  of  a  single  individual 
over  a  period  of  eight  years." 

Number  of   running  words:    approximately  5,180,000 
Number  of  different  words:   approximately        38,000 

Comment.  This  compilation  was  made  by  combining  the  alphabetical 
lists  of  words  resulting  from  each  of  the  investigations  given  above.  When 
the  total  frequency  of  each  word  had  been  determined  the  words  were 
arranged  in  order  of  frequency  and  the  10,000  most  important  words  se- 
lected. The  measures  of  importance  were  frequency  and  distribution  of 
occurrence  in  these  nine  lists. 

All  of  the  investigations  used  in  compiling  these  10,000  words  were 
financed  wholly  or  in  part  by  a  grant  from  the  Commonwealth  Fund, 
with  the  exception  of  that  by  Clark,  that  by  Houser,  those  in  the  Cali- 
fornia Speller,  and  those  in  1  h.  At  the  time  this  grant  was  made,  1922, 
a  total  of  approximately  800,000  running  words  of  adult  correspondence 
had  been  analyzed  by  various  investigators.  By  that  time,  it  was  clearly 
established  that  the  following  words  would,  in  a  more  extensive  count, 
fall  within  the  first  100  words  most  frequently  used.  These  words  were 
not  counted  in  the  investigations  made  under  the  grant  from  the  Common- 
wealth Fund. 


ronouns 

Auxiliary  Verbs 

Prepositions 

Miscellarii 

eous 

that 

could 

about 

come 

some 

their 

been 

after 

good 

there 

them 

have 

before 

here 

thing 

these 

must 

from 

just 

time 

they 

shall 

over 

know 

very 

this 

should 

under 

letter 

well 

what 

were 

until 

much 

when 

which 

will 

with 

your 

would 

yours 

In  addition,  words  of  less  than  four  letters  were  omitted,  since  such  words 
have  little  or  no  spelling  difficulty,  and  also  proper  names  of  people,  places, 
months,  and  days.  By  these  omissions,  it  was  possible  to  score  a  much 
wider  and  more  extensive  sampling  of  adult  writing  needs  than  would 
have  been  possible  had  all  words  been  scored. 

The  total  of  the  frequencies  of  all  words  thus  omitted,  excepting  proper 
names,  was  found  in  the  800,000  running  words  which  had  already  been 
recorded.  This  total  made  up  somewhat  more  than  60  per  cent  of  the 
800,000  running  words.  The  assumption  was  made  that  words  thus 
omitted  would,  if  they  had  been  scored,  make  up  approximately  the  same 
percentage  of  the  running  words  in  the  other  investigations.  An  estimate 
of  the  total  number  of  running  words  was  made  by  calling  the  number 
of  running  words  actually  tabulated  40  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of 
running  words  examined.     It  will  be  seen  that  the  total  number  of  words 


The  Third  Yearbook  129 


in  the  material  examined  is  somewhat  more  than  two  and  one  half  times 
the  number  of  running  words  actually  recorded. 

Because  the  number  of  running  words  is  an  estimate,  all  figures  are 
given  in  round  numbers,  but  the  exact  frequencies  upon  which  estimates 
are  based  will  be  printed  in  the  study.  The  number  of  different  words  is 
also  given  in  round  numbers.  A  description  of  the  various  investigations 
included  in  this  compilation  follows,  with  the  exception  of  two  which  are 
summarized  earlier  in  this  chapter. 

1 .  Investigations  by  the  author : 

a.  "Vocabulary  of  Business  Letters." 

Purpose.  ( 1 )  To  discover  the  words  most  commonly  needed  in  busi- 
ness correspondence;  (2)  to  discover  to  what  degree  specialized  business 
words  exist;  (3)  to  compare  the  vocabulary  of  business  correspondence 
with  that  of  general  correspondence. 

Source.  The  letters  from  26  different  types  of  business. 

Number  of   running  words:    approximately  1,650,000 
Number   of   different  words:  15,200 

Comment.  In  analyzing  this  vocabulary,  the  cooperation  of  Rotary 
Clubs  in  different  sections  of  the  United  States  was  sought.  In  addition, 
a  large  amount  of  correspondence  was  secured  by  a  personal  canvass  of 
business  firms  in  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul  by  Miss  Cora  Crowder.  Miss 
Crowder's  own  independent  investigation  of  business  vocabularies  is  in- 
cluded, as  is  the  author's  "Vocabulary  of  Banker's  Letters,"  the  list  from 
the  California  Barrel  Company,  the  list  from  the  Emporium  and  Hale's 
Department  Store,  and  Houser,  "Writing  Vocabularies  of  Representatives 
of  an  Economic  Class." 

At  the  outset  the  intention  was  to  sample  an  amount  of  correspondence 
equal  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  business.  However,  it  was  found 
impossible  to  secure  adequate  amounts  of  correspondence  from  certain  types 
of  business.  The  investigator,  therefore,  had  to  be  satisfied  with  the  anal- 
ysis of  such  letters  as  could  be  procured  from  these  26  different  groups. 
It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  this  does  not  mean  there  were  only  26 
different  firms  which  contributed  correspondence.  Under  publishing  firms, 
for  example,  are  included  letters  from  16  different  firms. 

The  number  of  different  kinds  of  business  and  the  large  number  of  run- 
ning words  counted  are  sufficient  to  indicate  the  words  which  have  wide- 
spread usage  in  various  types  of  business  correspondence.  The  counts  for 
most  of  the  26  types,  however,  are  not  sufficient  to  afford  a  satisfactory 
basis  for  making  special  vocational  lists. 

b.  "The  Vocabulary  of  Letters  Written  by  Literary  Men." 

Purpose.  To  discover  in  what  ways,  if  any,  such  vocabulary  differs 
from  that  found  in  the  letters  analyzed  in  other  investigations. 


130  Department  of  Superintendence 

Source.  An  extensive  sampling  of  the  letters  of  eight  well-known 
American  writers  and  eight  well-known  English  writers.  In  addition,  all 
of  the  letters  given  in  E.  V.  Lucas'  The  Gentlest  Art  were  analyzed. 

Number  of  running  words:   approximately  690,000 
Number  of  different  words:  approximately     23,600 

Comment.  The  letters  of  the  following  American  and  English  writers 
were  analyzed : 

American  English 

Abraham    Lincoln  Lord   Chesterfield 

John  Hay  Percy   Bysshe    Shelley 

Franklin    Lane  Lord    Byron 

Walter  H.  Page  Charles    Lamb 

Theodore  Roosevelt  Horace  Walpole 

James  Russell  Lowell  Robert   Browning 

Phillips   Brooks  Elizabeth    Browning 

William  Dean  Howells  Robert  Louis   Stevenson 

The  Gentlest  Art  is  a  compilation  of  letters  of  well-known  writers. 

Although  the  only  use  made  of  this  list  so  far  is  to  compile  it  with  the 
other  correspondence  investigations  reviewed  in  this  chapter,  the  data  from 
the  list  will  be  used  to  help  answer  two  questions :  ( 1 )  In  what  ways  does 
the  vocabulary  of  literary  men  differ  from  that  found  in  ordinary  corre- 
spondence? (2)  Are  there  discoverable  differences  between  the  vocabu- 
lary of  English  and  American  writers?  It  will  also  be  used  for. the  pur- 
pose of  comparing  the  vocabulary  of  past  periods  with  that  of  the  present. 

The  number  of  different  words  in  this  vocabulary  is  larger,  for  the 
amount  of  material  analyzed,  than  in  any  other  type  which  was  scored.  In 
fact,  more  different  words  were  found  in  the  correspondence  of  literary 
men  than  were  found  in  any  other  type  of  correspondence  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  only  690,000  running  words  were  analyzed.  This  may  be  ex- 
plained in  part  by  the  fact  that  these  letters  were  written  over  a  larger 
geographical  area  as  well  as  over  a  longer  period  of  time.  On  the  other 
hand,  an  examination  of  the  detailed  list  shows  clearly  that  literary  men 
use  the  language  with  great  freedom.  It  is  particularly  interesting  to  note 
the  commonness  with  which  contractions,  slang,  and  colloquial  words  appear 
ir  these  letters. 

c.  "The  Vocabulary  of  Correspondence  of  a  Personal  Nature" 

Purpose.  First,  to  secure  additional  data  regarding  the  vocabulary  of 
personal  letters;  second,  to  determine  whether  the  vocabulary  used  in  letters 
varies  according  to  the  locality  in  which  the  letter  is  written. 

Source.  Letters  written  to  college  students  by  friends  and  relatives  in 
each  of  the  following  geographical  divisions  and  in  the  states  indicated 
under  each  division. 


The  Third  Yearbook  131 


Pacific:  Washington,   Oregon,   California. 

Western:    Montana,    Idaho,    Wyoming,    Nevada,    Utah,    Colorado,    Arizona,    New 

Mexico. 
South    Atlantic:    Georgia,    Florida,    North    Carolina,     South    Carolina,    Virginia, 

West  Virginia,  Maryland,  Delaware,  District  of  Columbia. 
New    England:    Maine,    New    Hampshire,    Vermont,    Massachusetts,    Connecticut, 

Rhode  Island. 
Middle  Atlantic:  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania. 
South   Central:  Alabama,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Mississippi,  Arkansas,   Oklahoma, 

Louisiana,    Texas. 
North    Central:    Ohio,    Indiana,    Illinois,    Michigan,    Wisconsin,    Minnesota,    Iowa, 

Missouri,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota. 

Number  of  running  words:   approximately     1,402,000 
Number   of   different  words:    approximately         19,200 

Comment.  The  investigator  desired  to  obtain  the  vocabulary  of  highly 
personal  letters  from  each  section  of  the  United  States.  Requests  were 
therefore  sent  to  professors  of  education  and  psychology  in  universities  and 
colleges  in  all  parts  of  the  country  asking  that  they  request  students  in 
their  classes  to  make  alphabetical  lists  of  the  words  in  the  letters  they  had 
received  from  friends  and  relatives.  The  instructors  were  asked  to  explain 
that  all  types  of  personal  letters  were  desired — love  letters,  letters  from 
parents  or  other  members  of  the  family,  and  letters  from  friends.  Since 
the  student  did  not  contribute  the  letters  in  their  original  form,  but  only  an 
alphabetical  list  of  words,  he  could  be  sure  no  confidence  would  be  betrayed. 
In  this  fashion  it  was  possible  to  get  the  vocabulary  of  letters  of  a  highly 
personal  nature  when  the  letters  themselves  would  not  have  been  available 
to  the  investigator. 

Each  student  in  handing  in  his  alphabetical  list  of  words  reported  (a) 
his  name  and  address,  (b)  types  of  letters  he  had  scored,  (c)  states  from 
which  the  letters  were  written,  (d)  approximate  number  of  running  words 
in  the  letters. 

The  vocabulary  secured  by  this  method  represented  every  type  of  personal 
letter  from  love  letters  of  engaged  people  to  the  ordinary  news  letter  from 
home.  It  is  possible  that  since  writers  of  these  letters  were  friends  or 
relatives  of  college  students,  the  vocabulary  secured  is,  on  the  average,  that 
of  people  of  a  somewhat  higher  level  of  education  than  that  secured  by 
Andersen.  On  the  other  hand,  it  seems  likely  from  the  constitution  of 
student  bodies  in  the  various  universities  and  colleges  that  letter  writers 
from  every  educational  level  are  represented. 

It  is  probable  that  words  pertaining  to  education  and  college  life  appear 
somewhat  more  frequently  in  this  investigation  than  would  be  the  case  had 
the  letters  not  been  written  to  college  students.  A  consideration  of  the 
probable  subject-matter  of  such  correspondence,  as  well  as  a  detailed 
examination  of  the  word  list,  shows  this  to  be  true.  Examples  of  such 
words  are  fraternity,  dormitory,  examination.  On  the  other  hand,  an 
examination  of  the  relationship  existing  between  the  writers  and  recipients 


132  Department  of  Superintendence 


of  the  letters  makes  it  seem  likely  that  almost  every  type  of  human  relation- 
ship was  touched  upon  in  these  letters. 

d.  "Letters  of  Application  and  Recommendation" 

Purpose.  To  find  the  words  used  most  frequently  by  students  and 
teachers  in  applying  for  positions,  and  by  those  who  write  recommendations 
for  such  students  and  teachers. 

Source.  The  letters  of  application  and  recommendation  on  file  in  one 
normal   school. 

Number  of  running  words:   approximately  154,000 
Number  of  different  words:  approximately       5,100 

Comment.  The  amount  of  material  analyzed  is  probably  sufficient  to 
indicate  the  words  most  frequently  used  in  letters  of  this  type  of  application 
and  recommendation.  One  cannot,  of  course,  generalize  from  this  study 
as  to  the  vocabulary  of  letters  of  application  and  recommendation  in  other 
professions  or  in  business.  Many  words,  such  as  recommendation,  would 
be  found  in  other  types  of  letters  of  application.  The  misspelling  of  a  word 
in  a  letter  of  application  is  so  heavily  penalized  that  similar  studies  need  to 
be  made  for  other  types  of  professions  and  business. 

e.  "The  Vocabulary  of  Material  Contributed  by  Laymen  to  Newspapers 
and  Magazines" 

Purpose.  To  discover  in  what  ways  the  vocabulary  of  such  contribution 
differs  from  that  of  other  correspondence. 

Source.  Letters  written  to  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  to  the  Chicago 
Tribune,  to  the  Chicago  Daily  News,  and  to  the  Chicago  Evening  Post. 
In  addition,  the  vocabulary  of  Clark's  investigation  was  included. 

Number    of    running    words:  86,000 
Number   of   different  words:   13,300 

Comment.  These  contributions  to  periodicals  and  newspapers  were 
analyzed  in  the  belief  that  those  who  make  such  contributions  have  more 
than  average  education.  The  vocabulary  thus  obtained,  like  that  secured 
from  the  letters  of  literary  men,  gives  some  indication  of  the  range  and 
quality  of  the  vocabulary  of  people  of  somewhat  superior  writing  ability. 

f%  "The  Vocabulary  of  Minutes,  Resolutions,  and  Committee  Reports" 

Purpose.  To  discover  the  words  most  frequently  used  in  minutes,  resolu- 
tions, and  committee  reports. 

Source.  The  minutes,  resolutions  and  committee  reports  of  learned, 
professional,  and  philanthropic  associations  and  societies  in  the  United 
States.  Minutes  of  various  types  of  women's  clubs.  Minutes  of  a  list  of 
other  organizations. 

Number  of   running  words:  124,000 
Number  of  different  words:       5,700 


The  Third  Yearbook  133 

Comment.  This  investigation  was  undertaken  after  a  canvass  of  a  large 
number  of  adults  indicated  that  the  writing  of  minutes,  resolutions,  and 
committee  reports  was  practically  universal,  even  though  somewhat  infre- 
quent, among  individuals  who  have  completed  a  high-school  education. 
Many  of  the  words  most  commonly  used  in  minutes  are  very  difficult  to 
spell.  An  examination  of  actual  sets  of  minutes  shows  that  misspellings 
are  not  infrequent. 

In  obtaining  data  for  this  investigation,  use  was  made  of  the  minutes  of 
a  large  number  of  organizations  which  were  found  in  printed  form.  Among 
these  are  the  following: 

American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science. 

Associated  Advertising  Clubs  of  the  World. 

Association  of  American  Universities. 

National  Municipal  League. 

Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution. 

National  Education  Association. 

Ancient  and  Accepted  Scottish  Rite  of  Freemasonry. 

In  addition,  a  request  was  sent  out  to  individuals  in  various  communities 
in  the  state  asking  that  they  secure  samples  of  minutes  from  local  organiza- 
tions. Returns  to  this  request  included  two  types  of  minutes:  first,  those 
from  various  types  of  women's  clubs ;  and  second,  those  from  various  other 
types  of  associations,  such  as  commercial  clubs,  boards  of  education,  lodges, 
athletic  associations,  and  declamatory  associations. 

From  the  amount  of  material  analyzed  and  from  an  examination  of  the 
detailed  word  list,  it  seems  probable  that  the  important  words  peculiar 
to  the  writing  of  minutes,  sets  of  resolutions,  and  committee  'reports  are 
included  in  this  list. 

g.  "The  Vocabulary  of  Excuses  Written  by  Parents  to  Teachers" 

Purpose.  To  discover  the  nature  and,  extent  of  this  vocabulary. 

Source.  Excuses  written  by  parents  to  teachers  in  schools  located  in 
Ohio,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  and  Pennsylvania 

Number  of  running  words:        30,000 
Number  of  different  words:  900 

Comment.  Writing  excuses  to  teachers  constitutes  a  common  need  for 
all  parents.  While  the  amount  of  material  scored  is  small,  it  must  be  kept 
in  mind  that  excuses  are  short.  Except  for  the  vocabulary  needs  arising  in 
special  circumstances,  it  seems  probable  that  this  investigation  discloses  most 
of  the  words  frequently  needed  in  writing  excuses. 

The  outstanding  impressions  given  by  these  excuses  are:  that  they  are 
poorly  written,  that  they  seldom  show  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  parent  to 
cooperate  wholeheartedly  with  the  teacher,  and  that  they  are  full  of  errors 
in  spelling  and  in  other  phases  of  composition.     Certainly  no  type  of  mate- 


134  Department  of  Superintendence 

rial  which  the  writer  has  studied,  including  children's  themes,  is  so  poorly 
written  and  so  full  of  errors. 

h.  "A  Compilation  of  Certain  Investigations  of  Correspondence  Made 
Previous  to  1922" 

Purpose.  To  combine  together,  for  purposes  of  comparison,  certain 
investigations  of  correspondence  made  previous  to  1922 

Source. 

Burke's  study. 

Andersen's  list. 

Cook  and  O'Shea  list. 

Ayres'  list. 

Horn's  study  of  100,000  running  words  of  highly  personal  correspondence. 

Number  of  running  words:     678,000    (not  including  proper  names  from  the  Cook  & 

O'Shea  list  or  words  found  but  not  reported 
by  Ayres,  Andersen,  and  Burke). 

Number  of  different  words:       6,900 

Comment.  This  compilation  was  used  as  a  measure  of  the  reliability  of 
other  lists.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  total  number  of  running  words  does 
not  equal  the  number  of  running  words  given  in  the  summaries  of  these 
various  investigations.  This  is  because  very  low  frequency  words  were 
not  reported  in  some  of  these  investigations.  The  number  of  running  words 
represents  the  actual  addition  of  the  frequencies  taken  from  these  various 
lists.  The  number  of  different  words  is  based  on  words  actually  reported 
in  these  investigations  and  is  therefore  much  less  than  the  number  actually 
found. 

General  Evaluation  of  the  "10,000  Words  Most  Frequently  Used  in  Writing" 

A  few  words  pertaining  to  school  matters  are  undoubtedly  overweighted 
in  this  summary  because  of  the  large  number  of  letters  written  to  students. 
Words  frequently  used  in  business  but  less  frequently  used  in  other  types 
of  writing  are  also  given  a  more  important  place  in  the  list  than  would 
be  justified  by  the  number  of  times  a  word  is  used  in  such  writings  as  is 
done  by  the  ordinary  individual  in  life  outside  the  school.  The  overweight- 
ing of  such  business  words  is  justified  because  of  the  fact  that  spelling  errors 
are  more  serious  in  a  business  letter  than  in  personal  letters.  It  must  be 
kept  in  mind  that  in  determining  these  10,000  words  account  was  taken  not 
only  of  the  total  number  of  times  a  word  was  used  but  also  of  the  number 
of  different  types  of  writing  in  which  it  was  found.  It  seems  likely  that 
the  high  frequency  words  in  this  list  are,  for  all  practical  purposes,  those 
which  should  be  included  in  a  course  of  study  in  spelling. 


The  Third  Yearbook  135 

II.  What  words  are  most  frequently  used  in  writing  done  in 

school? 

STUDY  NO.  16.  Jones,  F.  W.  Concrete  investigation  of  the  material 
of  English  spelling.    Vermillion,  Univ.  of  South  Dakota,  1915. 

Purpose.  "To  determine  what  words,  grade  for  grade,  children  use  in 
their  own  free  written  speech,  and  what  words,  therefore,  they  need  to 
know  how  to  spell." 

Source.  75,000  children's  themes 

Number  of  running  words  analyzed:     15,000,000 
Number  of  different  words:  4,532 

Comment.  The  material  used  in  this  investigation  consists  of  the  ap- 
proximate writing  vocabularies  of  1050  grade  students,  grades  two  to  eight 
inclusive,  in  four  States:  Illinois,  Maryland,  Iowa,  and  South  Dakota. 
Teachers  were  asked  to  have  students  write  themes,  under  regular  school 
conditions,  and  on  any  topics  of  interest  to  the  students.  Specific  directions 
were  given  to  the  teachers.  The  theme  writing  was  begun  in  the  third 
month  of  the  school  year  and  continued  until  the  vocabularies  were  appar- 
ently completed.  This  apparent  exhaustion  of  the  child's  vocabulary  was 
reached  by  most  of  the  students  at  the  end  of  the  fortieth  theme.  The 
titles  of  the  themes  were  then  varied  so  as  to  reach  into  new  fields  of 
experience  and  stimulate  the  children  to  use  new  words.  When  a  given 
student  failed  to  use  any  new  words  for  eight  themes,  Jones  concluded  that 
that  student's  word-well  was  dry.  The  total  number  of  themes  examined 
per  student  ranged  from  56  to  105. 

The  4532  words  reported  as  found  are  printed,  without  frequencies,  in 
grade  lists.  A  count  was  also  made  of  the  frequency  with  which  each  word 
was  misspelled.  The  100  words  having  the  highest  number  of  misspellings 
are  printed  under  the  title  "100  Spelling  Demons." 

Later  investigations  have  not  confirmed  Jones'  results,  but  his  study  has 
had  an  important  influence  in  stimulating  an  interest  in  the  study  of  chil- 
dren's themes.  The  number  of  words  is  astonishingly  small,  considering  the 
total  number  of  running  words  reported  to  have  been  analyzed.  More 
recent  investigations  have  shown  clearly  that  with  an  adequately  stimulat- 
ing list  of  theme  topics  one  would  secure  far  more  than  4532  words  in 
15,000,000  running  words  written  in  grades  two  to  eight.     . 

STUDY  NO.  17.  Bauer,  Nicholas.  The  New  Orleans  public  school 
spelling  list.    New  Orleans:  F.  F.  Hansell  &  Bros.,  1916. 

Purpose.  To  prepare  a  list  of  words  to  be  used  as  spelling  material  in 
the  grades  by  determining  the  writing  vocabularies  of  pupils. 

Source.   18,000  children's  themes 

Number  of  running  words  analyzed:  2,500,000 

Number  of  different  forms  of  words:  approximately        19,000 


136  Department  of  Superintendence 

Comment.  The  pupils  of  the  New  Orleans  public  schools  were  required 
to  write  on  one  or  more  of  ninety  assigned  topics  related  to  child  life  and 
activities.  The  words  used  by  the  children  of  the  different  grades  were 
arranged  alphabetically  by  the  teachers  and  the  frequency  of  occurrence  and 
of  misspelling  recorded.  The  final  compilation  was  made  by  Superintendent 
Bauer. 

3037  words  having  a  frequency  of  forty  or  more  each  were  assigned  to 
grades  as  follows : 

Grade 


II 

385 

III 

467 

IV 

476 

V 

543 

VI 

566 

VII 

600 

VIII 

Review  of  the  3037  words. 

"In  making  the  assignment  of  words  to  the  grades,  the  385  words  which 
had  been  used  the  greatest  number  of  times  in  the  third  grade  were  listed 
as  words  to  be  studied  by  the  second-grade  pupils.  The  same  method  of 
procedure  was  followed  for  the  other  grades  except  in  the  sixth  and  seventh 
grades  where  the  remaining  1166  words  were  apportioned  to  the  two 
grades." 

A  comparison  of  the  words  secured  in  this  investigation  was  made  with 
those  given  in  the  study  by  Cook  and  O'Shea.  It  was  found  that  with  a 
very  few  exceptions  all  the  words  given  in  the  first  and  second  lists  in 
Cook  and  O'Shea  were  also  found  among  the  words  frequently  used  by 
these  children. 

Although  Superintendent  Bauer  makes  no  pretense  of  having  exhausted 
the  vocabularies  of  the  children  of  New  Orleans,  the  number  of  different 
words  found  in  analyzing  two-and-a-half  million  running  words  is  more 
than  four  times  as  large  as  that  reported  by  Jones  from  his  analysis  of 
15,000,000  running  words.  The  larger  number  reported  by  Bauer  agrees 
much  more  closely  with  what  we  now  know  about  the  extent  of  children's 
vocabularies. 

STUDY  NO.  18.  Barthelmess,  Harriet  M.  "The  teaching  of  spell- 
ing." Annual  Report  of  School  Committee.  School  Document  No.  19. 
Boston:  Boston  Printing  Department,  1916. 

Purpose.  "To  find  out  what  common  words  the  pupils  needed  most  in 
their  written  work  (as  shown  by  the  actual  words  they  use  in  their  orig- 
inal composition  work)  and  which  of  these  words  they  were  misspelling 
most  often." 

Source.  Lists  of  words  which  children  most  frequently  misspell  in  their 
written  work,  prepared  by  representative  teachers  from  70  elementary 
school  districts  of  Boston. 


The  Third  Yearbook  137 


Number  of  words  recorded  by  teachers:  15,223 

Number  of  different  words  recorded  by  teachers:  5,231 

Number  of  words  selected  for  minimum  list:  840 

Number  of  words  selected  for  supplementary  list:  2,542 

Comment.  These  words  recorded  by  the  teachers  were  compiled  by 
the  Department  of  Educational  Investigation  and  Measurement  into  min- 
imum and  supplementary  lists  of  words  on  the  basis  of  the  frequency  with 
which  the  individual  words  occurred  in  the  lists  of  the  several  teachers. 

"In  May,  1915,  tests  were  given  in  order  to  determine  the  degree 
of  difficulty  of  each  word  as  shown  by  the  ability  of  a  thousand  pupils  to 
spell  it.  In  most  cases  each  pupil  was  asked  to  spell  words  from  the 
minimum  list  of  his  own  grade." 

"The  words  in  the  minimum  lists  were  re-listed  according  to  the  per 
cent  of  accuracy  established  for  each  word  in  its  assigned  grade." 

Additional  words  were  added  to  the  minimum  lists.  Two  factors  gov- 
erned the  selection  of  these  additional  words  "(1)  They  are  words  that 
appear  a  sufficient  number  of  times  in  the  teachers'  lists  to  suggest  their 
need  by  the  pupils;  (2)  they  appear  in  the  Ayres  List,  which  indicates  that 
they  are  among  the  1000  most  common  words." 

"The  supplementary  lists  were  revised  to  include  words  from  the  best- 
known  scientific  spelling  lists  that  were  not  already  included  somewhere 
in  the  Boston  lists." 

STUDY  NO.  19.  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  Public  Schools.  Prelim- 
inary report  of  the  committee  on  spelling.  Research  Bulletin  2.  Kansas 
City,  Mo.:  Board  of  Educ,  1916. 

Purpose.  To  make  a  minimum  word  list  based  on  words  most  fre- 
quently missed  in  children's  compositions. 

Source.  49,797  compositions  written  in  55  schools  in  Kansas  City. 
In  addition,  opinions  of  first-grade  teachers  on  327  different  words. 

Number  of  running  words:  Not  given. 

Total  number  of  different  words  misspelled:    4448 

Comment.  This  study  is  based  on  the  analysis  of  lists  of  misspelled 
words  sent  in  by  683  teachers  in  55  schools.  The  misspellings  were  those 
discovered  in  49,797  compositions  written  by  16,591  pupils.  Only  one 
misspelling  of  a  word  was  counted  for  a  given  pupil.  4448  were  missed. 
1926  words  were  missed  by  three  or  more  pupils.  These  1926  words  are 
given  in  the  form  of  a  table  in  which  is  shown  for  each  grade  the  number 
of  pupils  who  missed  the  word. 

While  the  total  number  of  running  words  is  not  given,  it  is  probable 
that  about  five  million  running  words  were  examined.  This  estimate 
is  made  on  the  basis  of  100  words  to  a  composition.  As  can  be  readily 
seen,  the  work  of  recording  errors  only  is  small  as  compared  with  that 
of  recording  all  words.     The  time  saved  in  recording  nothing  but  errors 


138  Department  of  Superintendence 

was  enormous.  Since  the  prevention  and  correction  of  spelling  errors 
is  the  purpose  of  the  investigation,  the  recording  of  errors  seems  sufficient. 

In  having  the  compositions  written,  an  effort  was  made  to  find  as  wide 
a  range  of  topics  as  possible.  However,  from  the  nature  of  the  topics 
suggested  to  the  teachers  as  samples  of  theme  subjects  upon  which  pupils 
should  write,  one  gets  the  impression  that  the  subjects  were  somewhat 
limited  in  type. 

The  weakness  in  the  investigation  is  the  lack  of  a  well-planned  list  of 
theme  topics  which  could  be  expected  to  sample  adequately  the  written 
vocabularies  of  the  children  in  the  various  grades.  However,  this  in- 
vestigation must  be  counted  among  the  most  important  of  all  those  which 
have  dealt  with  children's  themes.  With  an  adequate  list  of  theme  sub- 
jects and  approximately  the  same  technique,  the  same  type  of  investigation 
could  profitably  be  carried  out  in  a  number  of  public  school  systems. 

STUDY  NO.  20.  Tidyman,  W.  F.  Survey  of  the  writing  vocabularies 
of  public  school  children  in  Connecticut.  Teachers'  Leaflet  No.  15, 
November,  1921.    18  pp. 

Purpose.  To  supplement  previous  investigations  in  three  particulars: 
"(1)  to  determine  the  second  and  third  thousand  words  commonly  used 
by  children  in  their  spontaneous  compositions,  (2)  to  determine  the  grades 
in  which  all  common  words  are  used,  and  (3)  to  develop  an  accurate  and 
expeditious  method  of  examining  words  in  large  numbers." 

Source.  Compositions  written  by  school  children  in  grades  three  to 
nine  inclusive. 

Number  of  running  words  analyzed:    538,500 

Number  of  different  words:  3,850  occurring  two  or  more  times  in  one 

section  of  the  investigation,  omit- 
ting short  words  and  102  common 
words. 

Comment.  During  the  school  year  of  1917-1918  the  author  analyzed 
5000  compositions  chosen  at  random  from  150,000  written  in  27  schools 
by  children  in  grades  3-9.  The  general  plan  of  the  procedure  was  to  cor- 
rect the  compositions  for  spelling;  to  cut  the  compositions  up  so  that  one 
line  only  appeared  on  a  slip  of  paper ;  to  throw  out  words  of  assuredly 
common  use ;  and  to  sort  the  remainder  into  alphabetical  and  sub-alphabet- 
ical lists  until  words  of  the  same  kind  fell  into  the  same  pile ;  finally,  to 
count  and  record  the  number  of  times  each  word  was  used.  The  cutting 
and  sorting  was  made  possible  by  having  the  compositions  "written  upon 
uniformly  ruled  paper,  usually  five-eighths  inch  ruling,  on  one  side  of  a 
sheet  only.  A  special  effort  was  made  to  have  children  write  on  the  line 
and  to  space  words  well." 

.  Some  of  the  words  were  not  counted.  Since  "the  purpose  of  the  in- 
vestigation was  to  determine  the  frequencies  of  rarer  words,  the  words 
of  assuredly  common  use  were  omitted."    Words  of  one  or  two  letters  and 


The  Third  Yearbook  139 


a  few  special  words  were  omitted  in  all  the  grades.  In  addition,  "words 
of  three  letters  were  omitted  in  grades  four  and  above,  and  all  words  of 
four  letters  were  omitted  in  grades  seven  and  above."  The  names  of 
persons  and  places  were  not  counted. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  author  saved  a  great  deal  of  time  by  eliminat- 
ing short  words  and  very  common  words,  even  though  some  of  his  102 
common  words  lie  far  beyond  the  first  100  words  of  greatest  frequency. 
Dr.  Ayres  in  reporting  his  investigation  of  the  spelling  vocabulary  of 
personal  and  business  letters  pointed  out  that  99  words  with  their  repeti- 
tions made  up  five  eighths  of  all  the  running  words.  The  extensive  data 
now  available  indicate  that  the  100  commonest  words  with  their  repetitions 
make  up  nearly  59  per  cent  of  all  the  words  which  one  writes.  It  is  easy 
to  see  that  the  omission  of  these  common  words  and  all  short  words  saves 
a  large  amount  of  time  in  the  final  sorting  and  recording.  The  bulletin 
gives  what  the  author  considers  to  be  the  first,  second,  and  third  thousand 
words.    These  words  are  also  arranged  in  grade  lists. 

In  order  to  select  the  first  1000  words,  the  author  took  the  1254  words 
reported  in  four  or  more  of  the  following  investigations:  "those  of  Chan- 
cellor, Smith,  Cook  and  O'Shea,  Jones,  Studley  and  Ware,  and  Ayres — 
and  selected  from  these  the  1000  words  that  were  found  to  be  used  most 
frequently  in  the  present  investigation.  The  second  and  third  thousand 
words  were  then  determined.  As  a  rule,  words  that  occurred  at  least  15 
times  were  placed  in  the  second  thousand,  and  words  that  occurred  between 
5  and  14  times  were  placed  in  the  third  thousand." 

"In  arranging  grade  lists  a  word  was  placed  in  the  grade  in  which  it  first 
occurred.    The  words  are  distributed  among  the  grades  as  follows: 


Grade 

III 

1,103 

Grade 

IV 

726 

Grade 

V 

578 

Grade 

VI 

293 

Grade 

VII 

169 

Grade 

VIII 

113 

Grade 

IX 

22: 

It  should  be  pointed  out  that,  when  one  considers  the  wide  range  of 
ability  in  a  given  grade,  "first  occurrence"  in  a  grade  is  a  doubtful  method 
of  grading. 

This  investigation  adds  to  our  knowledge  of  the  vocabulary  of  chil- 
dren's themes  in  which  the  theme  topics  are  not  planned  or  controlled. 
The  author's  method  of  cutting  and  sorting  words  is  a  contribution.  The 
author's  statement  is:  "It  is  not  an  exaggeration  to  say  that,  following 
this  method,  one  can  handle  words  in  thousands  while  by  the  old  checking 
method  he  handled  them  by  hundreds.  In  48  hours  the  author,  working 
alone,  sorted  and  counted  48,000  words,  including  the  eliminations  noted 
above."  While  a  comparison  with  time  costs  of  other  methods  of  recording 
does  not  show  that  the  advantages  of  cutting  and  sorting  are  as  great  as  are 
here  indicated,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  elimination  of  short  words  and 


140  Department  of  Superintendence 

common  words  brings  a  substantial  saving.  If  the  cutting  and  sorting 
method  is  to  be  used,  the  lines  on  the  paper  must  be  far  apart  and  the 
words  well-spaced.  The  method  has  not  proved  practicable  in  tabulating 
the  vocabularies  of  letters. 

STUDY  NO.  21.  McKee,  Grace  M.  "Children's  themes  as  a  source 
of  spelling  vocabulary."  The  Elementary  School  Journal.  Nov.,  1924, 
Chicago :  The  Univ.  of  Chicago.  For  a  more  detailed  discussion  see : 
McKee,  Grace  M.  Children  s  themes  as  a  source  of  spelling  vocabulary, 
Master's  thesis,  University  of  Iowa,  July,  1924. 

Purpose.  "First,  to  determine  how  adequately  certain  previous  theme 
investigations  have  really  discovered  the  vocabulary  which  children  use  in 
writing  compositions  and,  second,  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  words 
reported  by  previous  investigations  and  the  "words  found  in  this  investiga- 
tion are  included  in  such  standard  lists  as  the  Horn  Composite  List  and  the 
Thorndike  Word  List." 

Source.  180  themes  of  sixth-grade  pupils  in  5  Iowa  cities  and  2  Illinois 
cities. 

Number    of    running    words:  18,958 
Number   of   different  words :     2,329 

Comment.  In  order  to  provide  a  more  adequate  vocabulary  stimula- 
tion, Mrs.  McKee  sought  to  formulate  theme  subjects  which  would  bear 
on  a  great  variety  of  experiences  with  which  sixth-grade  children  should 
be  familiar.  As  a  guide  in  formulating  the  theme  subjects,  she  used  as  a 
starting  point  Bobbitt's  classification  of  the  values  of  life.  She  then  con- 
structed and  assigned  387  theme  subjects  grouped  under  the  following 
main  headings: 

30_  topics  on  communication. 

28  topics  on  health. 

21  topics  on  unspecialized  practical  labors. 

8  topics  on  religion. 

16  topics  on  citizenship. 

20  topics  on  social  contacts  and  relationships. 

16  topics  on  general  mental  efficiency. 

41  topics  on  leisure  activities. 

180  themes  were  written  by  sixth-grade  pupils  upon  subjects  selected 
from  this  list.  Every  word  in  the  themes  was  tabulated,  each  word  form 
being  scored  separately.  Although  but  18,958  running  words  were  scored, 
2329. different  words  were  found. 

In  order  to  compare  her  findings  with  those  reported  in  other  investiga- 
tions of  children's  themes,  Mrs.  McKee  made  a  compilation  of  the  vocab- 
ularies reported  by  Jones,  Smith,  Bauer,  and  Brown.  These  investigations 
are  described  elsewhere  in  this  chapter.  She  found  that  there  was  a  great 
lack  of  agreement  among  these  various  lists  as  to  what  words  children  use 


The  Third  Yearbook  141 

in  writing  themes.    She  found  but  1475  words  which  were  common  to  four 
of  the  five  lists. 

The  list  of  2329  words  was  then  compared  with  the  word  lists  in  each 
of  these  investigations  with  the  following  results: 

893  of  these  words  were  not  found  in  the  Jones  list. 
1,623  of  these  words  were  not  found  in  the  Smith  list. 
1,154  of  these  words  were  not  found  in  the  Bauer  list. 
1,174  of  these  words  were  not  found  in  the  Brown  list. 
1,099  of  these  words  were  not  found  in  the  Tidyman  list. 

587  of  these  words  were  not  found  in  any  one  of  the  five  lists. 

These  data  seem  to  indicate  clearly  that  no  previous  investigation  has 
used  a  list  of  topics  which  was  at  all  adequate  to  discover  what  words 
a  child  can  use  in  a  theme.  This  defect  probably  accounts  for  the  lack 
of  agreement  among  the  lists,  as  well  as  for  the  relatively  small  vocabu- 
lary found  in  each  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  words  analyzed. 

The  1475  words  common  to  four  of  the  five  previous  theme  investiga- 
tions were  then  compared  with  the  Horn  investigation  of  adult  writing 
needs  and  with  the  Thorndike  investigation  of  the  vocabulary  of  reading. 
Mrs.  McKee  draws  two  conclusions  from  these  comparisons:  first,  that  very 
few  of  the  words  in  children's  themes  were  not  found  in  investigations 
of  adult  writing  or  reading  needs;  and  second,  that  the  vocabulary  of 
theme  investigations  falls  so  far  short  of  adult  requirements  as  to  consti- 
tute inadequate  preparation  for  adult  needs. 

The  comparison  of  Mrs.  McKee's  list  with  that  of  Thorndike  and  that 
of  Horn  shows  that  368  of  the  2329  words  in  Mrs.  McKee's  original 
investigation  are  not  in  the  Horn  list  and  that  758  of  these  words  are 
not  in  the  Thorndike  list.  The  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  these  figures 
are:  first,  when  the  vocabulary  of  children  is  stimulated  by  an  adequate 
list  of  theme  topics,  the  vocabulary  of  the  themes  secured  more  nearly 
resembles  that  of  adult  writing  than  it  does  that  of  adult  reading  or  that 
secured  by  any  of  the  previous  investigations  of  children's  themes ;  second, 
if  children  write  upon  a  wide  list  of  topics  dealing  with  every  phase  of 
their  experience,  the  vocabulary  secured  will  certainly  be  very  much 
greater  than  that  obtained  in  any  previous  investigation  of  children's  themes. 

STUDY  NO.  22.  Capps,  A.  G.  "Curriculum  content  of  a  high  school 
spelling  course."  Journal  of  Educational  Research  2:  626-655,  October, 
1920. 

Purpose.  To  discover  the  words  misspelled  in  the  course  of  the  school 
year  by  high  school  pupils  in  a  school  of  120  pupils  in  a  town  of  1000 
inhabitants   in   northern    Missouri. 

Source.  All  the  written  work  of  pupils  including  note-books. 

Number  of  words  analyzed:  956,730 

Number  of  errors  :  3,388 

Number  of  different  words  misspelled:       1,925 


142 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Comment.  Twenty-eight  different  words  were  misspelled  10  or  more 
times,  totaling  553  misspellings,  or  16  per  cent  of  the  errors  made.  Sixty- 
two  different  words  were  misspelled  five  to  nine  times,  totaling  400  mis- 
spellings. Forty-four  different  words  were  misspelled  four  times,  totaling 
176  errors.  And  ninety-nine  were  misspelled  three  times,  totaling  297 
errors.  Sixty-two  of  the  words  misspelled  are  in  the  Ayres'  Thousand 
Commonest  Words. 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  vocabulary,  and  therefore  the  spelling 
errors,  found  in  the  written  work  of  high  school  students  is  determined 
by  the  nature  of  the  topics  written  upon.  Many  of  the  words  reported 
in  this  investigation  are  technical  words  used  in  connection  with  high 
school  subjects  and  are  not  found  among  words  frequently  used  in  life 
outside  the  school. 

STUDY  NO.  23.  Lester,  John  A.  "A  study  of  high  school  spelling 
material."  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  13:  65-74,  February,  1922; 
152-159,  March,  1922. 

Purpose.  To  find  those  words  actually  misspelled  by  secondary  school 
seniors  from  public  high  schools  and  preparatory  schools. 

Source.  The  written  work  of  2414  candidates  for  the  College  Board 
Entrance  Examination  in  English  for  the  seven  years,  1913-1919. 

Number  of  running  words  analyzed:  1,378,000   (approximately) 

Comment.  The  total  number  of  misspellings  found  was  14,002.  The 
total  number  of  misspelled  words  was  2620.  Ten  words  were  misspelled 
917  times  and  contributed  6.05  per  cent  of  the  misspellings.  Fifty  words 
were  misspelled  2688  times  and  contributed  19.2  per  cent  of  the  mis- 
spellings. One  hundred  words  were  misspelled  4259  times  and  contrib- 
uted 30.4  per  cent  of  the  misspellings. 

Table  9  gives  the  full  statement  of  these  facts : 


TABLE  9.— MISSPELLED  WORDS  TAKEN  FROM  WRITTEN  WORK 
OF  2414  CANDIDATES  FOR  THE  COLLEGE  BOARD  ENTRANCE 
EXAMINATION  IN  ENGLISH 


Per  Cent  of  Misspelling 

Number  of  Words 

Times  Misspelled 

Contributed 

10 

917 

6.05 

50 

2,688 

19.2 

100 

4,259 

30.4 

200 

6,161 

44.0 

250 

6,801 

48.6 

300 

7,376 

52.6 

400 

8,275 

59.1 

500 

9,016 

64.4 

600 

9,622 

68.7 

700 

10,122 

72.3 

775 

10,497 

75,0 

1,000 

11,367 

81.0 

2,000 

13,400 

'95.7 

2,620 

14,002 

100.0 

The  Third  Yearbook 


143 


The  fifty  words  most  frequently  misspelled  are  given  in  the  order  of 
the  frequency  of  their  misspelling,  together  with  the  most  frequent  ways 
of  misspelling  them.  The  first  ten  were  too,  its,  believe,  together,  their, 
principal,  committee,  therefore,  separate,  and  pleasant.  These  ten  words 
contributed  6.05  per  cent  of  the  errors.  In  another  source  '  the  775  words 
which  contributed  75  per  cent  of  the  errors  are  given  in  the  order  of  the 
frequency  of  their  misspelling.  Thirty-one  per  cent  of  these  words  are 
in  the  Ayres  list  of  the  one  thousand  commonest  English  words. 

This  study  is  important  because  it  was  among  the  first  studies  to  find  the 
words  actually  misspelled  by  secondary  school  pupils.  It  must  be  pointed 
out  that  the  written  work  from  which  the  words  were  selected  was  highly 
specialized  and  included  little  opportunity  for  the  use  of  colloquial  lan- 
guage. Then,  too,  the  group  that  takes  the  College  Entrance  Board  Ex- 
aminations is  highly  selected.  What  effect  these  two  factors  had  on  the 
words  misspelled   is   problematical. 

STUDY  NO.  24.  Cesander,  P.  K.  A  basic  high  school  spelling  list. 
Master's  thesis  in  preparation,  State  University  of  Iowa.  (Mr.  Cesander 
is  superintendent  of  schools,  Rushford,  Minn.) 

Purpose.  To  find  the  words  actually  misspelled  by  high  school  pupils 
of  all  grades  in  written  examinations  prescribed  by  the  state. 

Source.  The  examination  papers  in  all  high  school  subjeects  for  the  four 
grades,  written  on  questions  prepared  by  a  state  examining  board.  Papers 
from  a  very  large  per  cent  of  the  high  schools  of  one  state  will  be  analyzed. 

This  list,  when  completed,  will  give  those  words  which  representative 
high  school  pupils  of  the  Middle  West  misspell  in  such  examinations  as 
are   now   required. 

Up  to  date,  the  following  papers  have  been  analyzed  with  the  results 
shown  in  Table  10. 


TABLE  10.— WORDS  MISSPELLED  BY  HIGH  SCHOOL  PUPILS  OF 
THE  MIDDLE  WEST 


Subject 

Number  of 
Papers 

Number  of 
Running  Words 

Number  of 

Misspelled 

Words 

Number  of 
Misspellings 

General  History  I 

General  History  II 

English  I 

163 
187 
475 
377 
203 

150,000 
224,438 
205,119 
196,419 
109,830 

320 

350 
244 
350 
320 

725 
510 
502 

English  II 

470 

General  Science 

500 

1  Lester,  John  A.     A  spelling  review,    1920,   Pottstown,   Pa.     John  A.   Lester,  Hill    School, 
Publisher. 


144  Department  of  Superintendence 


III.  What  is  the  significance  for  purposes  of  spelling  of  the  words 

found  in: 

a.  Investigations  of  the  vocabulary  of  reading. 

STUDY  NO.  25.  Thorndike,  E.  L.  The  teachers  word  book.  New 
York,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univ.,  New  York  City. 

This  investigation  is  not  reviewed  in  detail  here,  since  such  a  summary 
belongs  more  properly  to  the  section  on  reading. 

This  investigation  deals  with  the  vocabulary  of  reading  rather  than 
with  that  of  spelling.  To  quote  Professor  Thorndike:  "It  should  be 
noted  further  that  this  is  not  a  spelling  list.  If  it  is  used  as  an  aid  in 
the  construction  of  spelling  lists,  the  derived  forms  in  s,  ies,  ly,  er,  r,  est, 
st,  s,  ed,  dj  ing,  and  n  should  be  inserted.  They  may  offer  notable  diffi- 
culty in  spelling  even  when  easily  read  and  understood  by  derivation." 

And  yet  the  nature  of  the  English  language  is  such  that  this  list  affords 
valuable  additional  data  upon  the  words  commonly  needed  in  writing. 
While  it  is  questionable  to  include  in  a  spelling  list  a  word  which  occurs 
in  the  Thorndike  list  but  not  in  the  important  investigations  of  writing 
vocabularies,  there  is  no  doubt  that  a  word  found  not  only  in  spelling  but 
also  in  reading  takes  on  additional  importance.  This  investigation  not 
only  contributes  the  most  important  collection  of  data  concerning  the  vo- 
cabulary of  reading,  but  also  furnishes  exceedingly  valuable  data  for 
purposes  of  measuring  the  overlap  between  the  vocabulary  of  reading  and 
the  vocabulary  of  spelling. 

STUDY  NO.  26.  Dewey,  Godfrey.  Relativ  frequency  of  English 
speech  sounds.     Cambridge:  Harvard  Univ.  Press,   1923. 

Purpose.  "The  object  of  this  study  was  to  determin  the  relativ  fre- 
quency of  occurrence,  in  good  English,  as  written  and  spoken  today,  of  the 
various  simple  sounds  and  commoner  sound  combinations — sillables  and 
words — of  the   English   language." 

Source.  Approximately  10  per  cent  of  personal  and  business  corre- 
spondence and  90  per  cent  of  widely  varied  types  of  reading  matter. 

Number  of  running  words:       106,404 
Number  of  different  words:        10,161 

Comment.  Although  this  investigation  deals  chiefly  with  the  vocabu- 
lary of  reading,  the  author's  interest  in  phonetic  spelling  leads  him  to 
make  some  interesting  comparisons  between  his  own  results  and  those  of 
investigations  of  writing  vocabularies.  The  book  is  intended  as  a  contri- 
bution to  phonetics. 

The  following  investigations  of  the  vocabulary  of  school  readers  are  of 
service  in  determining  in  the  primary  grades  the  relationship  of  the  vocab- 
ulary of  spelling  and  the  vocabulary  of  reading.     These  investigations  are 


The  Third  Yearbook  145 


merely  listed  here  since  they  are  reviewed  in  this  Yearbook  in  the  chapter 
on  reading. 

Packer,  J.  L.,  "The  vocabularies  of  ten  first  readers."  The  20th  Yearbook,  Part 
II,  Chap.  IX.     Bloomington,  111.:  Public  School  Pub.  Co.,  1921. 

Housh,  E.  T.,  "Analysis  of  the  vocabularies  of  ten  second  year  readers."  The 
17th  Yearbook,  Chap.  IV,  Bloomington,  111.:  Public  School  Pub.  Co.,  1918. 

Miller,  N.  S.,  "A  critical  analysis  of  vocabulary  of  ten  third  readers."  Master's 
Thesis,  Univ.  of  Iowa. 

Kircher,  H.  W.,  "Analysis  of  the  vocabularies  of  37  primers  and  first  readers." 
The  24th  Yearbook,  Part  I,  Chap.  VII.  Bloomington,  111.:  Public  School  Pub.  Co., 
1925. 

b.  Investigations  of  the  vocabulary  of  speaking. 

STUDY  NO.  27.  Horn,  Ernest.  "The  vocabulary  of  children  up  to 
and  including  first  grade."  The  24th  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society 
for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I,  Chap.  VII.  Bloomington,  111.:  Pub- 
lic School  Pub.  Co. 

Purpose.  To  discover  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  spoken  vocabulary 
of  young  children. 

Source.  1.  An  investigation  by  the  author  of  the  vocabularies  of  indi- 
vidual children  varying  in  age  from  one  to  six  years. 

2.  Horn,  Madeline.     The  Vocabulary  of  Kindergarten  Children. 

3.  Packer,  P.  C.     The  Spoken  Vocabulary  of  First  Grade  Children. 

Number  of  running  words:    Approximately    200,000    of    children    of    kindergarten 

age ;  approximately  70,000  of  children  in  the  first 
grade ;  number  of  running  words  was  not  reported 
by  those  who  contributed  the  vocabularies  of  indi- 
vidual children. 

Number  of  different  words:    Approximately  5000. 

Comment.  Many  of  the  5000  different  words  which  were  reported 
occurred  but  once  or  twice.  In  order  to  secure  a  more  limited  list,  all 
words  were  taken  which  occurred  in  three  investigations  with  a  frequency 
of  15  or  more,  or  in  two  of  the  investigations  with  a  total  frequency  of 
25  or  more.  This  limited  list  of  words  is  printed  without  frequencies. 
This  list  contains  the  words  which  children  understand  and  use  most 
freely  up  to  and  including  the  age  of  six.  It  is  therefore  useful  in  helping 
the  curriculum  maker  to  determine  what  words  should  be  included  in  the 
primary  grades.  It  is  also  interesting  to  compare  the  number  of  different 
words  found  in  the  spoken  vocabulary  of  children  of  not  more  than  six  years 
with  that  reported  in  the  investigations  of  children's  themes. 

STUDY  NO.  28.  Graham,  L.  J.  The  vocabulary  of  the  geography 
recitation.     Master's  thesis,  Univ.  of  Iowa,   1923. 

Purpose.  1.  What  are  the  words  used  by  children  in  classroom  recita- 
tions in  geography? 


146  Department  of  Superintendence 

2.  In  what  way  does  this  vocabulary  differ  from  grade  to  grade  ? 

3.  How  does  this  vocabulary  differ  from  that  of  the  reading  vocabulary 
reported  by  Thorndike  and  from  that  of  adult  writing  compiled  by  Horn? 

Source.  Stenographic  reports  of  geography  lessons.  Samplings  in  long- 
hand of  pupil  recitations  in  geography. 

Number  of  running  words:     106,071 
Number  of  different  words:         5,519 

Comment.  783  of  the  5519  words  found  in  this  investigation  are  geo- 
graphical names;  3050  are  not  found  in  the  Thorndike  list,  2565  are  not 
found  in  a  compilation  of  800,000  running  words  of  adult  correspondence. 
This  compilation  included  the  following  investigations  described  else- 
where  in  this  report: 

1.  Cook  and  O'Shea. 

2.  Andersen. 

3.  Ayres. 

4.  Houser. 

5.  Studies  reported  in  the  California  Speller. 

6.  Clark. 

7.  Horn,  Bankers'  letters. 

8.  Horn,  100,000  running  words  of  personal  correspondence. 

Mr.  Graham  concludes  that  it  is  probable  that  at  least  half  of  the 
words  "which  a  child  uses  in  his  oral  recitations  in  geography  are  words 
which  he  will  not  use  in  his  writing  or  find  in  his  general  reading."  He 
adds,  however,  that  a  much  larger  sampling  will  have  to  be  made  before 
such  conclusion  could  be  finally  accepted. 

STUDY  NO.  29.  Phares,  Mary  L.  A  study  of  the  classroom  spoken 
vocabulary  of  seventh  and  eighth  grade  pupils:  Its  possible  bearing  upon 
the  problems  of  spelling.     Master's  thesis,  State  Univ.  of  Iowa,  1923. 

Purpose.  As  stated  in  the  title. 

Source.  Stenographic  reports  of  recitations.  Longhand  samplings  from 
pupil  recitations  in  these  grades. 

Number  of  running  words:      141,957 
Number  of  different  words:       7,506 

Comment.  There  are  three  significant  contributions  in  this  thesis. 
First,  it  shows  the  extensive  vocabulary  requirements  put  upon  children  in 
these  grades ;  second,  it  shows  the  amount  of  overlap  between  this  vocabu- 
lary and  that  needed  in  writing  letters;  third,  it  adds  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  spoken  vocabulary  requirements  in  recitations  in  each  of  the  prom- 
inent subjects  taught  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 

Miss  Phares  reports  that  53  per  cent  of,  the  words  found  ^n  her  investi- 
gation occur  also  in  a  compilation  of  800,000   running  words  of  corre- 


The  Third  Yearbook  147 


spondence.     51  per  cent  of  the  words  found  in  her  investigation  occur  also 
in  the  Thorndike   list. 

c.  Investigations  of  the  vocabulary  of  other  languages. 

STUDY  NO.  30.  Kaeding,  F.  W.  Hdufigkeitswbrterbuch  der  deut- 
schen  Sprache.  Steglitz  bei  Berlin:  Selbstverlag  des  Herausgebers,  1898, 
pp.  671. 

Purpose.  To  secure  adequate  data  on  the  frequency  of  words,  syllables, 
sound  combinations,  and  letters  in  the  German  language  for  a  critical  ex- 
amination and  revision  of  German  systems  of  shorthand. 

Source.  A  wide  sampling  was  taken  from  literature  in  the  following 
fields : 

Number  of  Words.  Number  of  Syllables. 

1.  Legal    400,000  810,442 

2.  Theological    .' 400,000  670,856 

3.  Medical     100,000  189,832 

4  Commercial     300,000  597,786 

5.  Historical 500,000  894,890 

6.  Classical   2,000,000  3,329,087 

7.  Letters: 

a.  Commercial 100,000  191,282 

b.  Military    i 200,000  375,468 

c.  Private 700,000  1,182,981 

8.  Political   900,000  1,745,875 

9.  Discoveries   400,000  777,047 

10.  General  Military   600,000  1,147,974 

11.  Miscellaneous    4,306,235  8,086,480 

Number  of  running  words:  10,910,777 

Number  of  syllables:  20,000,000 

Number  of  different  words:  258,173    (of   which   49.14  per  cent   occur 

but  once.) 
Number  of  letters:  60,558,018 

Comment.  This  monumental  work  was  begun  in  1891  after  the  director 
had  presented  to  associations  of  stenographic  systems  the  need  for  fre- 
quency investigations  of  words,  syllables,  sounds,  sound  combinations,  and 
letters  if  systems  of  shorthand  are  to  rest  on  a  scientific  basis.  The  neces- 
sity for  a  word  count  on  an  extensive  scale  appeared  when  comparisons 
were  made  of  the  frequencies  of  even  commonly  occurring  words  with 
varying  material.  For  example,  in  forty-five  sets  of  100,000  words  each 
the  range  of  frequencies  for  zu  was  from  974  in  one  list  to  1959  in  an- 
other; for  es  278  to  1254;  and  for  er  198  to  1400.  Previously  published 
word  or  syllable  counts,  based  on  considerably  less  than  100,000  syllables 
were  therefore  entirely  inadequate. 

The  research  was  planned  to  the  last  detail.  Each  word  to  be  counted 
was  written  on  a  card  by  the  participants  and  the  cards  sorted  into  classes 
according  to  the  number  of  syllables  and  according  to  the  type  of  mate- 


148 


Department  of  Superintendence 


rial  on  which  the  count  was  based.  665  individuals  cooperated  in  this  pre- 
liminary work.  Each  set  contributed  was  checked  at  least  once,  and  in 
difficult  sections  of  the  work,  twice.  167  cooperators  then  assisted  in 
grouping  all  the  original  material  into  unit  sets  of  100,000  words  for  each 
sort  of  literature.  Within  each  set  the  material  was  distributed  also  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  syllables.  Table  1 1  sets  forth  the  summary  of 
words  and  syllables  without  the  distribution  according  to  type  of  material. 


TABLE  11.— SUMMARY  OF  WORDS  EXAMINED  IN  THE  GERMAN 
LANGUAGE 


Number  of  Syllables  Per  Word 

Words 

Percentage 

Syllables 

1  Syllable.. 

5,426,326 

3,156,448 

1,410,494 

646,971 

187,738 

54,436 

16,993 

5,038 

1,225 

461 

59 

35 

8 

2 

1 

49.76 

28.94 

12.93 

5.93 

1.72 

.50 

5,426,326 

2  Syllables 

3  Syllables 

6,312,896 
4,231,482 

4  Syllables 

2,587,884 

5  Syllables 

938.690 

6  Syllables 

326,616 

7  Syllables    . 

118,951 

8  Syllables  .  .                 

40,304 

9  Syllables .  . 

.22 

11,025 

10  Syllables .  . 

4,610 

11  Syllables.  . 

649 

12  Syllables 

420 

13  Syllables 

14  Syllables    . 

104 

28 

5  Syllables  . 

15 

Total 

10,906,235 

20,000,000 

The  average  number  of  syllables  per  word  ranged  from  2.02  for  legal 
and  juristic  literature  to  1.79  for  historical  material.  The  general  aver- 
age for  all  material  is  1.83  syllables  per  word. 

The  next  step  was  the  alphabetical  arrangement  of  all  the  individual 
words,  the  card  for  each  word  giving  the  total  frequency  in  the  10,910,777 
words,  the  frequency  per  100,000  words  with  each  type  of  material,  and 
the  frequency  with  the  individual  sets  of  material. 

The  next  step  was  the  analysis  of  the  frequencies  of  each  word  in 
derivatives  and  compounds  as  prefixes,  roots,  and  suffixes.  For  example, 
the  frequency  of  Schloss  when  appearing  alone  was  counted  and  also  in 
compounds  such  as  Luftschloss,  Kastenschloss,  Konig  schloss,  etc.,  or  of 
her  alone  and  in  compounds  such  as  bisherige,  woher,  daher,  beiher,  etc. 
The  prefixes  were  written  on  blue  cards,  the  suffixes  on  red  cards,  and 
root  words  on  white  cards  and  counted,  being  classified  also  as  to  the 
number  of  syllables  in  each. 

Finally  there  was  made  a  count  of  the  letters  and  the  frequency  of 
various  combinations  which  are  matters  of  special  interest  in  the  construc- 
tion  of   stenographic   systems. 

The  publication  of  the  enormous  mass  of  material  accumulated  was  of 
course  out  of  the  question.  The  book  gives  in  detail  alphabetically  and  in 
order  of  frequency  the  words,  roots,  prefixes,  and  suffixes  that  occurred  5000 
times  or  more,  with  an  indication  of  the  number  of  times  each  was  cap- 


The  Third  Yearbook  149 


italized  and  in  small  letters.  Three  words,  die,  der,  and  und,  constitute 
9.47  per  cent  of  all  words.  The  15  commonest  words  take  up  25.22  per 
cent  of  written  language,  while  66  words  make  up  50.06  per  cent,  or 
half,  of  running  discourse.  The  320  words  which  occur  5000  times  or 
more  make  up  72.25  per  cent  of  the  word  frequencies. 

Then  appears  an  alphabetical  list  of  the  79,716  words  which  occur 
four  times  or  more.  The  facts  presented  can  be  illustrated  by  an  ex- 
ample. Leben  appears  in  the  list  as  leben  (50)  158/483,  which  means  that 
it  occurred  483  times,  158  times  as  a  simple  word  and  capitalized  50  times, 
while  325  times  it  appeared  in  compounds  or  derivatives. 

The  root  syllables  which  appeared  5000  times  and  more  are  listed 
alphabetically  and  in  order  of  frequency  with  figures  for  the  frequency 
among  the  258,173  words  and  the  average  frequency  per  100,000  words 
There  are  401  such  forms.  There  are  also  listed  alphabetically  all  the 
root  syllables  which  occurred  eight  times  or  more. 

Then  are  listed  the  prefixes  with  all  their  combinations  and  a  separate 
frequency  list  of  separable  and  inseparable  prefixes.  Similarly  are  listed 
the  simple  and  compound  suffixes  which  occur  1000  times  or  more  and  a 
list  of  all  suffixes,  final  and  auxiliary  syllables. 

Part  III  of  this  stupendous  work  is  a  letter  count  of  the  60,558,018 
letters  for  the  20,000,000  syllables  counted.  The  frequencies  of  all  letter 
combinations  are  tabulated  and  classified  as  to  appearance  in  prefixes,  roots., 
and  suffixes;  complete  tabulations  are  also  given  of  all  the  vowel  and  con- 
sonant sounds  and  all  sound  combinations. 

The  extraordinary  detail  of  the  investigation  is  indicated  finally  by  the 
tabulation  of  the  frequencies  of  different  forms  of  punctuation  in  9,580,- 
000  running  words. 

The  director  met  with  indifference  and  open  antagonism  in  his  heroic 
undertaking.  Financial  support  was  inadequate  and  very  difficult  to  se- 
cure. Only  a  portion  of  the  tabulations  could  be  published.  All  the  original 
cards  and  tables  are  deposited  in  the  Royal  Library  of  Berlin  for  the  use 
of  other  investigators. 

This  study  is  of  great  value  in  determining  the  fundamental  ideas  for 
which  a  vocabulary  is  needed  in  any  western  civilized  country.  It  has  val- 
uable uses  also  in  determining  the  validity  of  word  counts  in  other  lan- 
guages. For  example,  in  the  compilation  of  adult  writing  needs  by  Horn, 
the  commonest  noun  was  time  and  the  fourth  commonest  noun  was  order. 
It  was  felt  that  possibly  order  was  overweighted  because  of  its  use  in  busi- 
ness letters.  However,  reference  to  the  most  frequent  words  in  the  Kaeding 
list  showed  Zeit  as  the  commonest  noun  and  Ordnung  as  the  second  com- 
monest noun. 

STUDY  NO.  31.  Henmon,  V.  A.  C.  A  French  word  book,  based  on 
a  count  of  400,000  running  words.  Madison,  Wis.  Bulletin  of  the  Bureau 
of  Educ.  Research,  Univ.  of  Wisconsin  Study  No.  2,  1924.     (In  press.) 


150  Department  of  Superintendence 

Purpose.  To  determine  the  1000  commonest  words  in  French  discourse. 

Source.  Wide  sampling  as  indicated  below. 

Number  of  running  words:    400,000 

Number  of  different  words:       9,187    (reduced  to  dictionary  basis) 

Comment.  This  study  was  undertaken  in  connection  with  an  investiga- 
tion for  the  American  Classical  League  inquiry  on  the  relation  of  the  study 
of  Latin  to  progress  in  learning  French.  :  The  question  naturally  arose  as  to 
the  vocabulary  in  Latin  that  would  be  most  useful  in  preparation  for  the 
later  study  of  French.  Inquiry  abroad  revealed  no  word  frequency  investi- 
gations in  French.     The  sources  used  .were  as  follows: 

Texts  edited  for  use  in  schools  and  colleges 80,000  words 

Philosophical  prose    20,000 

Magazine   articles    50,000 

Newspaper   articles    30,000 

Modern   French   writers    (de   Maupassant,    Daudet,    de   la 

Brete,  etc. ) 140,000 

Poetry    15,000 

Political  and  military  articles  and  essays 25,000 

Letters  and  Telegrams   15,000 

Popular  fiction 25,000 

400,000 

The  tabulation  in  the  published  material  gives  a  list  of  3500  words 
which  occur  five  times  or  more,  arranged  alphabetically  and  in  .order  of 
frequency.  French  vocabulary  scales  similar  to  Thorndike  word  scales 
in  English  graduated  on  a  basis  of  the  frequency  of  occurrence  found  have 
been  prepared  for  publication. 

In  addition  to  the  purposes  for  which  this  study  was  made,  it  consti- 
tutes a  valuable  addition  to  our  knowledge  of  the  fundamental  vocabulary 
needs  in  any  western  civilization.  A  comparison  between  this  vocabulary 
and  that  most  frequently  needed  in  reading  and  writing  English  shows  a 
large  overlapping.  Where  differences  occur  they  indicate  in  an  interest- 
ing way  that  where  the  customs  of  one  country  differ  from  another,  a  par- 
allel difference  will  be  found  in  the  vocabularies  of  the  two  countries. 

d.  Investigations  of  the  vocabulary  needed  in  connection  with  other 
school  subjects. 

STUDY  NO.  32.  Byrne,  Mary  B.  C.  and  Yocum,  A.  D.  An  investiga- 
tion into  the  word  contribution  of  every  subject  required  or  suggested  by  the 
New  York  City  curriculum  for  the  first  three  years  in  school.  (Unpub- 
ished.) 

Purpose.  As  indicated  in  the  title. 

Source.  Subject-matter  of  the  course  of  study  for  three  grades. 

Number  of  running  words:       Not  reported.  , 

Number  of  different  words:      Not  reported. 


The  Third  Yearbook  151 

Comment.  This  investigation  has  been  carried  on  over  a  period  of 
seven  years.  It  has  consisted  in  the  analysis  and  recording  of  the  "vocabu- 
lary contribution  of  each  subject  and  activity,  regardless  of  whether  the 
source  was  game,  poem,  song,  story,  dance,  hygiene,  number,  dramatiza- 
tion, drawing,  construction,  sewing,  trip  lesson,  nature,  lantern-slide  lesson, 
phonograph  lesson,  picture  study,  or  what  not.  Every  possible  vocabulary 
source  has  been  combed  with  care  to  discover  the  specific  word  contribu- 
tion of  each  subject,  and  the  total  vocabulary  contribution  of  all  subjects." 

After  this  vocabulary  was  determined,  further  study  was  made  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  the  relative  worth  of  each  word  and  also  the 
relative  ease  or  difficulty  with  which  each  word  is  acquired. 

While  the  reviewer  has  not  seen  the  detail  of  the  investigation,  it  seems 
likely  to  afford  data  of  value  for  deciding  which  words  among  those  of 
known  utility  in  writing  may  be  most  advantageously  taught  in  the  first 
three  years  of  school. 

STUDY  NO.  33.  Pressey,  Luella  C.  "The  determination  of  the  tech- 
nical vocabulary  of  school  subjects."  School  and  Society,  Vol.  20,  July 
19,  1924. 

See  also,  Pressey,  Luella  C.  "The  technical  vocabulary  of  school  sub- 
jects."    Bloomington,  111.,  Public  School  Pub.  Co.,  1924. 

While  this  investigation  is  primarily  a  contribution  to  reading  vocab- 
ularies, it  will  doubtless  prove  of  use  to  those  who  wish  to  include  subject 
lists  in  spelling  courses  of  study.  If  pupils  are  to  be  required  to  learn  to 
spell  the  principal  words  used  in  each  of  the  prominent  school  subjects,  this 
investigation  should  prove  helpful  by  showing  the  most  important  technical 
words  in  each  subject. 


CHAPTER  V 
READING 

William  S.   Gray,  Dean,  School   of  Education,   University  of   Chicago 
Chicago,  Illinois,  Chairman 

MORE  THAN  five  hundred  investigations  of  reading  have  been 
reported  during  the  last  thirty  years.  A  recent  summary  of 
these  studies  shows  that  a  large  proportion  of  them  contribute 
to  a  better  understanding  of  the  problems  of  reading  instruction  and  are, 
therefore,  of  value  in  efforts  to  reorganize  courses  of  study  and  to  improve 
classroom  teaching. 

When  the  preparation  of  this  section  was  undertaken  it  became  apparent 
at  once  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  summarize  in  detail  in  the  space 
assigned  to  the  Sub-Committee  on  Reading  even  a  small  percentage  of  the 
studies  which  are  of  value  in  constructing  courses  of  study  in  reading.  The 
plan  was  adopted,  therefore,  of  summarizing  briefly  the  results  of  a  large 
number  of  investigations  that  relate  directly  or  indirectly  to  twelve  specific 
problems  that  arise  in  organizing  courses  of  study  in  reading.  A  list  of 
these  problems  follows  together  with  the  names  of  the  committee  members 
who  prepared  the  various  sections  of  this  chapter. 

I.  Aims  of  reading  instruction.      (William  S.   Gray.) 
II.  Fundamental  habits  in  oral  and  silent  reading.      (William  S.  Gray.) 

III.  Growth    periods    or    rates    of    progress    in    important    phases    of    reading. 

(W.  W.  Theisen.) 

IV.  Children's  interests  in  reading.      (Frances  Jenkins.) 

V.  Results  of  investigations  of  reading  materials.      (W.  L.   Uhl.) 
VI.  Scientific  studies  in  the  field  of  literature.      (S.  A.  Leonard.) 
VII.  Studies  of  reading  vocabularies.      (H.  A.  Greene.) 
VIII.  The  evaluation  of  teaching  techniques.      (Laura  Zirbes.) 
IX.  The  place  of  phonetics  in  teaching  reading.     (Frances  Jenkins.) 
X.  Provision  for  individual  differences.     (W.  W.  Theisen.) 
XI.  Diagnosis   and  remedial  work.      (Laura  Zirbes.) 
XII.  Time  allotment.   (F.  W.  Ballou  and  Elizabeth  Hummer.) 

The  organization  of  the  report  in  terms  of  problems  has  necessarily  re- 
sulted in  reference  to  certain  studies  in  several  different  sections.  This 
could  not  be  avoided  inasmuch  as  many  studies  contribute  valuable  infor- 
mation concerning  several  problems. 

Many  other  problems  relating  to  curriculum  issues  would  have  been 
discussed  and  the  results  of  a  larger  number  of  investigations  summarized 
in  the  discussion  of  each  topic,  if  space  had  permitted. 

I.  Aims  of  Reading  Instruction 

Current  statements  of  aims  differ  widely — While  it  is  true  that  the 
aims  of  reading  have  been  discussed  widely  during  recent,  years,  only  a 

[152] 


The  Third  Yearbook  153 


limited  number  of  scientific  studies  have  been  published.     The  four  in- 
vestigations to  which  reference  is  made  here  reflect  widely  different  views. 

Aims  as  reported  by  elementary-school  teachers — In  1917,  Gray1  tab- 
ulated the  "most  desirable  results  or  outcomes  of  the  teaching  of  reading 
in  the  elementary  school"  as  reported  by  715  teachers  of  a  large  city. 
The  various  aims  and  the  percentage  of  teachers  mentioning  each  follow : 

Per  cent 

Appreciation  of  good  literature 68 

Ability  to    comprehend 64 

To   secure    information 40 

Improvement  in   oral-reading   ability 38 

Enlargement  of  vocabulary 24 

Mastery   of   the   mechanics    of    reading 15 

Training  for   leisure 15 

Improvement  in  oral  and  written  English 14 

Improvement    in    study    habits 10 

Development  of  general  mental  qualities 7 

Ability  to  reproduce  and  utilize  materials  read 6 

Moral    training 6 

Use  of  books 1 

Although  these  aims  include  some  of  the  uses  of  reading  in  school  and 
modern  life  their  major  emphasis  is  upon  the  traditional  values  attached  to 
reading. 

Aims  given  in  state  courses  of  study  for  rural  schools — Reinoehl"  made 
a  detailed  analysis  of  the  aims  of  reading  as  given  in  44  state  courses  of 
study  most  of  which  were  issued  since  1914.  Since  less  than  half  of  these 
courses  have  since  been  revised,  the  aims  discussed  represent  to  a  large 
extent  current  objectives  of  reading  in  rural  schools.  The  aims  which 
appeared  most  frequently  follow: 

Intelligent  interpretation  of  the  printed  page  with  reasonable  accuracy  and 
rapidity. 

Ability  to  read    (for  others)   in  pleasing,  natural,  forceful  expressive  ways. 

Appreciation  of  and  love  for  good  literature. 

Clean,  healthy,  profitable,  enjoyable  employment. 

Creation  of  a  compelling  desire  to  read  the  best  well. 

Develop  the  power  to  picture  vividly. 

For  ethical  culture  and  moral  development. 

Develop  the  power  of  discriminative  reading. 

It  is  apparent  that  these  aims  give  most  emphasis  to  intelligent  interpre- 
tation, expressive  oral  reading,  the  appreciation  of  good  literature,  and  the 
development  of  permanent  interests  in  reading. 


1  Gray,  William  S.     "Reading  in  the  elementary  schools  of  Indianapolis."   Elemen- 
tary School  Journal  XIX   (January,  1919),  336-53. 

2  Reinoehl,   Charles   M.     Analytical    survey  of   state   courses   of   study  for    rural 
elementary  schools,  pp.  65-6.    Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1922.     No.  42. 


154  Department  of  Superintendence 

A  survey  of  English  objectives — The  most  extensive  study  of  reading 
aims  thus  far  completed  was  made  by  Pendleton1  who  consulted  seven 
sources  of  information  in  a  painstaking  study  of  English  objectives.  These 
sources  were  statements  of  272  teachers  of  English,  statements  of  100  edu- 
cators, the  articles,  editorials,  and  notes  pertaining  to  English  published  in 
eleven  important  periodicals  during  the  years  1915-20,  67  standard  gen- 
eral volumes  on  education,  118  standard  volumes  about  English  and  the 
teaching  of  English,  49  state  or  municipal  courses  of  study  or  teachers' 
manuals  in  English,  and  62  current  textbooks  on  various  phases  and  levels 
of  English.  After  the  aims  had  been  determined  they  were  ranked  in  the 
order  of  importance  by  eighty  teachers  of  English.  Six  of  the  objectives 
which  were  considered  most  important  follow: 

The  habit  of  reading  for  enjoyment  literature  of  the  better  sort. 

A  taste  for  reading  books   (not  merely  magazines)   of  an  excellent  sort. 

An  attitude  of  alert  interest  in  the  world  and  all  things  in  it  and  a  desire  to 
increase  one's  knowledge. 

A  perennial  never-failing  interest  in  people ;  the  habit  of  studying  them  sym- 
pathetically. 

The  ability  to  refrain  from  marking  or  marring  in  any  way  a  borrowed  book. 

The  complete  list  of  objectives  include  409  which  relate  more  or  less 
directly  to  reading.  It  is  evident  from  the  examples  given  that  the  ob- 
jetives  which  were  considered  most  important  reflect  largely  the  special 
reading  interests  of  teachers  of  literature. 

Limitations  of  the  reading  aims  presented — The  studies  of  aims  to  which 
reference  has  been  made  have  serious  limitations.  They  indicate  primarily 
what  teachers  of  reading  and  literature  have  emphasized  in  the  past  and 
what  has  appeared  most  frequently  in  courses  of  study.  They  summarize 
current  practices  rather  than  seek  to  determine  the  most  valuable  uses  of 
reading  in  school  and  in  modern  social  life  or  the  changes  which  should 
be  made  in  the  aim  and  content  of  reading  instruction.  They  are,  therefore, 
of  limited  value  in  any  effort  to  reorganize  courses  of  study  or  to  improve 
and  refine  the  technique  of  teaching. 

Uses  of  reading  in  social  life — In  a  series  of  investigations  including  con- 
ferences with  more  than  900  adults,  Gray,2  Parsons,3  and  others  found 
"that  intelligent  reading  is  a  most  significant  means  of  familiarizing  adults 
with  current  events,  with  significant  social  issues,  with  community  and 
national  problems  and  with  American  institutions,  ideals,  and  aspirations." 
It  was  also  found  to  be  an  indispensable  means  of  attaining  vocational 


1  Pendleton,  S.  C.  An  inquiry  into  the  current  specific  objectives  in  English  in 
the  public  elementary  school  and  high  school,  Chap.  IV.  Doctor's  dissertation, 
The  Univ.  of  Chicago,  1921. 

2  Gray,  William  S.  "The  importance  of  intelligent  silent  reading."  Elementary 
School  Journal,  XXIV   (January,  1924),  pp.  348-52. 

3  Parsons,  R.  B.  A  study  of  adult  reading,  pp.  96-97.  Master's  Thesis,  The 
University  of  Chicago,  1923. 


The  Third  Yearbook  155 


efficiency,  of  extending  experience,  of  securing  a  broad  outlook  on  life,  and 
of  securing  pleasure  and  profit  during  leisure  hours.  The  investigations 
showed  that  practically  all  of  the  reading  of  adults  is  done  silently.  "F.ewer 
than  5  per  cent  reported  oral  reading  on  other  than  very  infrequent  oc- 
casions." Nevertheless,  several  important  purposes  or  occasions  of  oral 
reading  were  mentioned.  The  three  reported  most  frequently  were  to 
inform  or  entertain  others  in  private  or  public,  to  increase  one's  under- 
standing and  appreciation  of  materials  read,  and  to  entertain  and  interest 
children  in  reading. 

Uses  of  reading  in  school — Gray  made  a  study  of  the  uses  of  reading 
in  preparing  assignments  in  250  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grade  classrooms1 
of  Rochester  and  Buffalo  and  in  250  high  school  classes2  in  the  central 
west.  These  studies  showed  that  reading  is  used  for  a  wide  variety  of 
specific  purposes  such  as  finding  the  author's  aim,  selecting  the  main  point 
and  supporting  details,  finding  answers  to  questions,  following  directions, 
and  securing  information  to  aid  in  the  solution  of  a  problem.  The  studies 
showed  also  that  the  uses  of  reading  vary  in  different  subjects.  Judd  and 
Buswell3  found  that  changes  in  the  purposes  of  reading  are  accompanied 
by  corresponding  changes  in  the  habits  employed.  It  follows  that  specific 
training  should  be  given  in  each  important  use  of  reading  and  that  effective 
habits  of  reading  and  study  should  be  taught  in  each  content  subject  as 
well  as  during  the  literature  period. 

Conclusions — The  studies  to  which  reference  has  been  made  suggest 
the  following  tentative  conclusions:  (a)  That  the  traditional  aims  of 
reading  fail  to  give  sufficient  emphasis  to  modern  reading  needs;  (b)  that 
one  of  the  primary  purposes  of  reading  is  to  extend  the  experiences  of  the 
reader,  stimulate  his  thinking  powers,  and  enable  him  to  interpret  life  more 
intelligently  and  accurately;  (c)  that  instruction  in  reading  should  develop 
strong  motives  for  and  permanent  interests  in  reading  that  direct  and  in- 
spire the  present  and  future  life  of  the  reader;  (d)  that  reading  should 
cultivate  the  attitudes,  habits,  and  skills  that  are  essential  in  desirable 
reading  activities.  These  include  habits  of  intelligent  interpretation,  the 
fundamental  habits  of  fluent,  accurate  oral  reading  and  speed  of  silent 
reading,  effective  habits  of  interpretative  oral  reading,  and  skill  in  the  use 
of  books  and  sources  of  information. 

II.  Fundamental  Habits  in  Oral  and  Silent  Reading    . 

The  fact  has  been  emphasized  that  a  program  of  instruction  should  pro- 
vide for  the  development  of  all  essential  habits  involved  in  intelligent 
interpretation,  effective  oral  reading  and  speed  of  silent  reading.     Scientific 


1  Unpublished. 

2  Gray,  William  S.     "The  relation  between  study  and  reading,"  pp.  580-6.     Na- 
tional Education  Association:  Addresses  and  Proceedings,  LVII,  1919. 

3  Judd,  Charles  H.,  and  Buswell,  Guy  T.     "Silent  reading:  a  study  of  its  types." 
Chap.  III.     Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  No.  23,  1922. 


156  Department  of  Superintendence 

studies  have  distinguished  five  such  habits  for  both  oral  and  silent  read- 
ing— namely,  accurate  recognition,  span  of  recognition,  rate  of  recognition, 
the  rhythmical  progress  of  perceptions  along  the  lines,  and  the  accurate 
return  sweep  of  the  eyes  from  the  end  of  one  line  to  the  beginning  of  the 
next.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  section  to  consider  the  nature  of  these  habits 
and  conditions  that  affect  their  development. 

Accuracy  and  independence  in  recognition — The  fact  is  generally  rec- 
ognized that  the  good  reader  recognizes  words  independently  and  ac- 
curately. Although  the  pronunciation  of  words  need  not  be  recognized  in 
all  silent  reading  activities  a  reader  should  be  able  to  recognize  them  if 
occasion  demands.  Inaccuracies  of  recognition  in  oral  reading  result  in 
errors.  Several  tabular  studies1  of  such  errors  have  been  made  which 
reveal  interesting  information  concerning  their  variety  and  frequency. 
The  most  important  types  reported  are  non-recognitions,  total  mispronun- 
ciations, partial  mispronunciations,  omissions,  insertions,  repetitions,  and 
substitutions. 

The  causes  of  errors  or  failure2  in  recognition  have  been  classified  into 
ten  groups  as  follows :  defective  vision ;  immature  language  habits ;  self- 
consciousness  and  timidity ;  lack  of  interest ;  limited  reading  experience ; 
carelessness  and  lack  of  feeling  of  responsibility;  failure  to  direct  attention 
to  content;  inability  to  analyze  words;  a  narrow  span  of  recognition;  and 
irregular  eye-movements. 

The  studies  to  which  reference  has  been  made  reveal  additional  facts 
which  should  be  considered  in  organizing  a  program  of  reading  instruction : 

Progress  in  accuracy  of  recognition  varies  with  the  difficulty  of  the  material 
read,  with  the  kind  of  instruction  given,  and  with  the  conditions  that  prevail  in 
different  schools  and  school  systems. 

Progress  in  the  elimination  of  errors  in  simple  passages  may  take  place  relatively 
early  in  the  grades. 

Schools  which  eliminate  simple  errors  early  make  most  rapid  progress  in  develop- 
ing accuracy  and  independence  in  dealing  with  more  difficult  words. 

Schools  that  develop  accuracy  and  independence  early  are  free  to  devote  a 
relatively  larger  proportion  of  time  to  more  valuable  reading  activities  later  in 
the  grades. 


1  McGrath,  Jane.  An  experimental  study  in  first  grade  reading.  Master's 
Thesis,  The  Univ.  of  Chicago,  1918.  Gray,  C.  T.  "Types  of  reading  ability  as 
exhibited  through  tests  and  laboratory  experiments."  Supplementary  Educational 
Monographs.  Vol.  I,  No.  5,  1917.  Chap.  II.  Anderson,  C.  J.,  and  Merton,  Elda. 
"Remedial  work  in  reading."  Elementary  School  Journal.  XX  (May-June,  1920), 
pp.  68S-701;  772-91.  McLeod,  L.  S.  "The  influence  of  increasing  difficulty  of  read- 
ing material  upon  rate,  errors,  and  comprehension  in  oral  reading."  Elementary 
School-Journal,  XVIII  (March,  1918).  pp.  523-32.  Gray,  William  S.  "Reading  in 
the  elementary  schools  of  Indianapolis."  Elementary  School  Journal,  XIX  (Feb- 
ruary, 1919).     pp.  419-44. 

2  Gray,  William  S.  Remedial  cases  in  reading,  their  diagnosis  and  treatment. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  No.  22,  1922,  pp.  128-9.  Charles  H. 
Judd.  Reading:  its  nature  and  development.  Supplementary  Educational  Mono- 
graphs.   Vol.  II,  No.  4,  1918,  p.  60. 


The  Third  Yearbook  157 


As  the  difficulty  of  the  material  increases  for  a  given  class  the  character  of  the 
errors  changes  and  their  number  increases.  Furthermore,  as  pupils  advance 
through  the  grades  new  types  of  difficulties  are  encountered.  It  follows  that  the 
teachers  of  each  grade  are  confronted  with  the  problem  of  teaching  pupils  to 
recognize  words  accurately  and  independently.  Courses  of  study  should  provide 
systematic  instruction  throughout  the  grades  in  accuracy  and  independence  of 
recognition  based  upon  the  dominant  types  of  errors  made  in  each  grade. 

Various  methods  have  been  found  valuable  in  overcoming  difficulties  in 
word  recognition.  The  following  were  used  by  Gray1  and  others  in  a 
number  of  remedial  cases:  directing  attention  to  the  content;  drill  on 
words  similar  in  form  until  they  are  recognized  as  sight  words  or  because 
of  their  similar  elements ;  drill  on  phonetic  elements,  practice  in  word  build- 
ing, and  training  in  the  phonetic  analysis  of  short  words ;  and  training  in 
the  analysis  of  polysyllabic  words  by  recognizing  familiar  parts,  dividing 
words  into  syllables,  and  studying  prefixes  and  suffixes.  A  summary  of  the 
evidence  with  regard  to  the  place  of  phonetics  in  a  program  of  instruction 
will  be  discussed  in  a  later  section. 

Span  of  recognition — The  amount  recognized  at  each  fixation  of  the  eye 
is  "a  very  strong  factor  in  determining  speed  efficiency  in  both  silent  and 
oral  reading."2  The  size  of  the  unit  recognized  in  reading  has  been  meas- 
ured in  terms  of  the  number  of  fixations  of  the  eyes  per  line.  The  results 
secured  by  Schmidt  in  a  laboratory  experiment  appear  in  Table  12.  The 
entries  show  that  there  are  wide  individual  variations  and  that  the  amount 

Table  12.  Range  in  Average  Number  of  Words  Recognized  per  Fixation 

Type  of  Reading  Adults  High  School  Students      Elementary  Pupils 

Oral 1.52  to  .87  1.39  to     .98  1.62  to     .86 

Silent 2.15  to  .93  2.04  to   1.04  2.44  to  1.04 

Arranged  from  Schmidt's  data,  p.  56. 

recognized  per  fixation  is  greater  in  silent  than  in  oral  reading.  The  greater 
speed  of  silent  reading  is  due  largely  to  this  difference  in  span  of  recogni- 
tion. 

The  entries  in  Table  12  suggest  that  there  is  little  growth  in  span  of 
recognition.  This  impression  is  due  to  the  fact  that  most  of  the  increase 
comes  very  early  in  the  grades  as  shown  in  an  investigation  by  Buswell3. 


1  Gray,  William  S.  Remedial  cases  in  reading,  their  diagnosis  and  treatment. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs.  No.  22,  1922.  pp.  101-7.  Anderson,  C. 
J.,  and  Merton,  Elda.  "Remedial  work  in  reading."  Elementary  School  Journal. 
XX   (May-June,  1920).     pp.  685-701;  772-91. 

"  Schmidt,  W.  A.  An  experimental  study  in  the  psychology  of  reading.  Sup- 
plementary Educational  Monographs.     Vol.  I,  No.  2,  1917,  p.  57. 

3  Buswell,  Guy  T  Fundamental  reading  habits:  a  study  of  their  development. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs.     No.  21,  1922,  Chap.  II. 


Type  of 

Reading    IB 

IA 

II 

III 

IV 

Silent.     18.6 

15.5 

10.7 

8.9 

7.3 

Oral..     16.0 

14.5 

12.0 

10.4 

10.3 

158  Department  of  Superintendence 

Table  13  includes  the  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  for  both  oral 
and  silent  reading.     The  entries  in  this  table  show  clearly  '"that  the  chief 

Table  13.  Average  Number  of  Fixations  per  Line  in  Silent  and  Oral  Reading 

School   Grades 

V       VI       VII  Fresh.   Soph.     Jr.     Sr.     Col. 
6.9       7.3       6.8       7.2       5.8       5.5       6.4     59 
8.7       8.9       8.7       9.1       8.3       8.0       9.3     84 
Arranged  from  Buswell's  data,  pp.  26  and  37. 

development  in  span  of  recognition  comes  early  in  the  school  course." 

Evidence  concerning  the  effect  of  training  on  the  span  of  recognition  has 
been  secured  by  Gray  and  by  O'Brien.  Gray1  gave  short  exposure  exer- 
cises and  practice  in  rapid  reading  to  two  sixth-grade  pupils,  one  a  slow 
reader  and  the  other  a  rapid  reader.  The  records  of  their  eye-movements 
before  and  after  the  practice  period  show  that  training  may  increase  the 
size  of  the  unit  recognized.  O'Brien2  obtained  similar  evidence  from  five 
pupils  representing  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  seventh  grades  who  had  received 
training  to  increase  the  speed  of  silent  reading  and  to  decrease  vocaliza- 
tion. The  records  showed  a  "noticeable  reduction  in  the  number  of  fixa- 
tion pauses"  in  all  the  grades  represented. 

The  findings  which  have  been  reported  show  that  the  first  four  grades 
represent  the  period  of  most  rapid  increase  in  span  of  recognition  and  that 
provision  should  be  made  in  these  grades  for  appropriate  training.  The  fact 
should  be  recognized,  however,  that  practice  may  prove  effective  later  in 
the  grades  in  case  it  is  needed. 

Rate  of  recognition. — A  good  reader  not  only  recognizes  large  units  at 
each  fixation  but  he  also  recognizes  units  rapidly.  Schmidt3  found  that 
the  average  duration  of  reading  pauses  varied  from  214  to  470  thousandths 
of  a  second  in  silent  reading  and  from  230  to  520  thousandths  of  a  second 
in  oral  reading.  It  is  evident  from  these  data  that  some  readers  recognize 
given  units  much  more  rapidly  than  other  readers.  They  also  show  that 
recognition  is  more  rapid  in  silent  than  in  oral  reading. 

Growth  in  rate  of  recognition  occurs  most  rapidly  in  the  primary  grades. 
Buswell's4  studies  show  that  it  "is  one  element  of  reading  which  can  be 
brought  to  the  level  of  maturity  very  early  in  the  school  period."  His 
data  indicate  that  a  rate  of  recognition  "of  from  5  to  6  twenty- fifths  of  a 
second  satisfies  the  demands  of  maturity  in  reading." 


1  Gray,  C.  T.     Types  of  reading  ability  as  exhibited  through  tests  and  laboratory 
experiments.     Supplementary  Educational  Monographs.     Vol.  I,  No.  5,  Chap.  V. 

2  O'Brien,   J.    A.      Silent    reading,   Chap.   X.      Macmillan    Company,    New    York, 
1921. 

3  Schmidt,  W.  A.     An  experimental   study  in  the   psychology  of   reading.     Sup- 
plementary Educational  Monographs.     Vol.  1,  No.  2,  1917,  p.  118. 

4  Buswell,  Guy  T.     Fundamental   reading  habits;    a  study  of  their  development. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs.     No.  21,  June,  1922,  Chap.  IT. 


The  Third  Yearbook  159 


Little  specific  evidence  has  been  obtained  concerning  the  effect  of  train- 
ing on  rate  of  recognition.  The  studies  of  O'Brien1  and  Gray2  did  not 
reveal  improvement.  Their  subjects  were  in  the  fourth  grade  or  above 
and  the  training  provided  was  not  given  specifically  to  increase  rate  of 
recognition.  It  remains,  therefore,  to  determine  the  types  of  training 
that  are  most  effective  in  increasing  the  rate  of  recognition  and  the  grades 
in  which  results  can  be  secured  most  economically  and  effectively.  In  the 
meantime,  teachers  should  continue  to  make  use  in  the  primary  grades  of 
methods  that  experience  has  taught  are  valuable,  such  as  providing  simple 
selections  that  are  highly  charged  with  interest,  developing  strong  motives 
for  reading,  encouraging  much  independent  reading  of  simple  exercises, 
and  providing  frequent  quick  perception  exercises. 

Rhythmical  progress  of  perceptions — Huey3  early  observed  that  "readers 
showed  a  strong  rhythmic  tendency.  Each  would  fall  into  a  reading  pace 
that  seemed  most  natural  to  him,  and  would  read  page  after  page  in  almost 
exactly  the  same  time."  Later  experiments  of  Dearborn,  Schmidt,  Gray, 
Buswell,  and  Judd  confirm  Huey's  observations. 

Irregularity  in  the  progress  of  perceptions  has  been  measured  in  terms 
of  the  number  of  regressive  movements  per  line.  In  an  analysis  of  the 
causes  of  regressive  movements,  Buswell4  discovered  four  types  produced  by 
as  many  different  causes.  They  are  (a)  irregularities  at  the  beginning  of 
lines  due  to  inaccurate  return  sweeps,  (b)  irregularities  on  the  part  of 
mature  readers  who  overreach  their  maximum  span  of  recognition,  (c) 
lack  of  word  knowledge,  and  (d)  "periods  of  confusion."  Judd  and  Bus- 
well5  discovered  the  following  additional  causes:  increase  in  difficulty  of 
material  read,  changing  from  more  familiar  to  less  familiar  content,  and 
changing  the  purpose  of  reading,  for  example,  from  rapid  reading  to  study. 

Few  efforts  have  been  made  to  promote  the  rhythmical  progress  of  per- 
ceptions or  to  eliminate  regressive  movements  through  specific  training  ex- 
ercises, excepting  in  remedial  cases.6    The  latter  type  of  studies  shows  that 


1  O'Brien,  J.  A.     Silent  reading.     Chap.  X.     New  York:  Macmillan    Company, 
1921. 

2  Gray,  C.  T.    Types  of  reading  ability  as  exhibited  through  tests  and  laboratory 
experiments.     Supplementary  Educational  Monographs.     Vol.   I,  No.   5,   Chap.  V. 

3  Huey,   E.   B.      The  psychology   and  pedagogy   of   reading,   p.    175.     New   York. 
Macmillan  Company,  1912. 

4  Buswell,  Guy  T.     Fundamental  reading  habits:  a  study  of  their  development. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs.     No.  21,  1922.     pp.  34-36. 

5  Judd,  Charles  H.   and  Buswell,   Guy  T.     Silent  reading:   a  study  of   its  types: 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs.     No.  23,  1922.     Chap.  II  and  III. 

6  Gray,  William   S.     "The   diagnostic  study  of   an   individual   case  in   reading." 
Elementary  School  Journal,  XXI   (April,  1921),  pp.  577-594. 

Gray,  C.  T     Types  of  reading  ability  as  exhibited  through  tests  and  laboratory 
experiments.     Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  Vol.  I,  No.  5,   1917,  p.  153. 
O'Brien,  J.  A.    Silent  reading,  p.  266.     New  York.     Macmillan  Company,  1921. 


160  Department  of  Superintendence 

training  which  increases  the  span  of  recognition  and  speed  of  reading  also 
improves  the  regularity  of  eye-movements.  Other  studies  show  indirectly 
that  training  which  increases  accuracy  and  fluency  in  oral  reading  and 
speed  in  interpreting  what  is  read  are  equally  beneficial. 

Accurate  return  sweeps — Practically  all  eye-movement  studies  reveal  the 
fact  that  the  good  reader  moves  his  eyes  quickly  from  the  end  of  one  line 
to  the  beginning  of  the  next.  The  error  of  the  poor  reader  is  to  make  the 
first  fixation  on  a  line  too  far  to  the  right.  The  child  gains  his  first  idea  of 
the  return  sweep  as  the  teacher  writes  sentences  on  the  board  for  him 
to  read  or  as  she  points  to  the  lines  on  a  chart.  Most  pupils  form  right 
habits  without  additional  help.  It  is  only  in  remedial  cases  that  special 
help  is  necessary.  In  one  such  case,1  the  ljnes  were  typewritten  about  an 
inch  apart.  The  subject  was  instructed  to  move  his  eyes  quickly  from  the 
end  of  one  line  to  the  beginning  of  the  next  without  stopping  to  look  at 
words  on  the  second  line.  Ten  five-minute  practice  periods  proved  very 
effective  as  shown  by  his  subsequent  reading  record. 

Conclusion — The  studies  to  which  reference  has  been  made  emphasize 
the  importance  of  the  fundamental  habits  in  oral  and  silent  reading.  Defi- 
nite provision  should  be  made  throughout  the  grades  for  systematic  training 
in  habits  of  accuracy  and  independence  of  word  recognition.  Specific  pro- 
vision should  be  made  in  the  primary  grades  for  the  development  of  span 
of  recognition  and  rate  of  recognition  and  for  remedial  training  later  in 
the  grades,  if  needed  in  individual  cases.  Regular  progress  of  perceptions 
along  the  lines  and  accuracy  of  return  sweeps  are  promoted  by  the  teacher 
in  early  reading  activities.  Little  specific  training  is  required  later  except- 
ing in  remedial  cases.  Important  as  these  habits  of  recognition  are,  they 
should  never  be  emphasized  at  the  sacrifice  of  intelligent  interpretation. 
They  are  a  means  to  an  end  and  not  the  primary  goal  of  reading  instruction. 

III.  Growth  Periods  or  Rates  of  Progress  in  Important  Phases  of 

Reading 

Studies  of  progress  in  reading  have  revealed  a  number  of  interesting  facts 
for  the  practical  school  man.  In  general  these  studies  bring  out  the  fact  that 
progress  in  reading  is  much  slower  than  need  be.  Experimental  studies  have 
usually  shown  that  it  is  possible  to  bring  about  a  decided  improvement  in 
reading  in  a  relatively  short  time  if  one  will  but  apply  the  proper  remedies. 
Whether  such  rates  of  improvement  could  be  made  to  continue  over  a  long 
period  or  whether  improvement  under  experimental  conditions  is  large  be- 
cause appropriate  methods  have  been  tried  on  many  children  whose  reading 
was  at  a  low  level  is  impossible  to  say  definitely. 


1  Gray,  William   S.     "The   diagnostic   study  of   an   individual   case   in   reading." 
Elementary  School  Journal.    XXI   (April,  1921).     p.  587.  ' 


The  Third  Yearbook  161 


Improvement  in  rate  of  reading — The  average  rate  of  silent  reading  for 
children  trained  under  ordinary  conditions  when  material  of  the  usual  type 
is  used  to  test  them,  as  shown  by  the  averages  of  figures  collected  by  several 
investigators,  is  approximately  as  follows: 

Table  14.  Rates  of  Silent  Reading 

Grades                                   II          III  IV  V  VI  VII  VIII 
Average  from  several 

investigations x     84         124  166  196  220  242  256 

O'Brien— After    practice 236  278  293  322  393 

O'Brien— Suggested   Norm 236  266  296  326  356 

'  Figures  for  grades  II  and  III  represent  averages  of  data  secured  by  Courtis,  Gray,  and 
Starch  and  reported  in  the  Gary  Survey.  Figures  for  the  remaining  grades  represent  aver- 
ages  of   six   investigations   cited   by    O'Brien:    Silent    reading,    p.    303. 

Some  of  the  earlier  investigations  indicated  that  the  largest  gains  in  rate 
are  made  below  the  fourth  grade  and  that  there  is  little  gain  beyond 
the  fifth  grade,  a  matter  which  has  been  attributed  by  some  to  the  change  in 
character  of  the  reading  demands  made  upon  the  child  at  about  that  time.1 
O'Brien's  more  recent  and  extensive  experiment  shows  that  marked  growth 
in  rate  of  silent  reading  may  continue  in  all  elementary  grades  under  proper 
training  (See  Table  14).  He  conducted  an  experiment  with  approximately 
1200  children.  The  experimental  group  was  given  daily  training  in  rapid 
silent  reading  followed  by  reproduction  of  what  was  read  during  the  regular 
reading  period  for  39  school  days.  The  control  group  carried  on  the  regular 
work  in  reading.  At  the  end  it  was  found  that  the  group  which  received  the 
training  in  speed  increased  56  per  cent  in  rate  as  compared  with  25  per  cent 
for  the  control  pupils  and  made  a  marked  gain  in  comprehension  as  well. 
O'Brien  concluded  that  present  average  rates  in  reading  in  grades  III  to 
VIII  are  needlessly  slow  and  inefficient  and  that  they  can  be  improved  by 
systematic  training  without  any  impairment  of  comprehension,  if  special 
stress  is  placed  upon  that  point.-  Gates  in  the  period  from  November  to 
May  produced  an  improvement  in  rate  of  silent  reading  in  grades  III  to 
VIII  averaging  above  2.7  years  by  using  a  variety  of  devices  for  encouraging 
rate  and  comprehension. 

Improvement  in  comprehension — There  is  evidence  to  show  that  the  rate 
of  progress  in  comprehension  through  the  grades  under  ordinary  conditions 
is  much  lower  than  necessary.  The  various  reports  of  individual  case  studies 
show  that  for  many  children  at  least  progress  in  reading  under  usual  teach- 
ing conditions  is  far  from  ideal.     With  few  exceptions  in  these  individual 


1  Judd,  Charles  H.     Reading:  its  nature  and  development.     Supplementary  Edu- 
cational Monographs.     Vol.  II,  No.  4,  1918. 

-  O'Brien,  J.  A.     Silent  reading.     The  Macmillan  Co.     1921. 


162  Department  of  Superintendence 

case  studies  an  improvement  of  from  one  to  several  years'  progress  in  a  few 
months'  time  resulted  from  proper  diagnosis  and  appropriate  training.1 

In  some  instances,  both  comprehension  and  rate  have  been  more  than 
doubled.  The  studies  of  Uhl  and  Reichert  indicate  that  comprehension 
scores  may  be  materially  increased  in  short  periods  of  from  two  to  six  weeks' 
training.  Uhl  secured  marked  improvement  in  comprehension  with  daily 
drill  periods  of  fifteen  minutes  for  pupils  who  showed  marked  defects.  The 
group  of  pupils  in  each  grade  who  were  drilled  individually  gained,  in  all 
but  a  few  instances,  more  than  double  that  of  the  groups  who  were  not 
drilled.2  Reichert  by  six  weeks  of  carefully  supervised  instruction  in  one 
class  secured  a  gain  in  comprehension  double  that  made  in  two  control 
classes.  In  the  supervised  class  a  diagnostic  study  of  individual  needs  was 
made  and  pupils  were  grouped  and  given  the  sort  of  training  which  the  di- 
agnosis showed  they  needed.3  The  improvement  obtained  by  Gates  in  grades 
III  to  VIII  from  November  to  May  amounted  to  one  and  one-half  years 
as  measured  by  the  Thorndike-McCall  test.  On  the  basis  of  intelligence 
quotients  the  expected  improvement  would  have  been  but  1.17  years.4  Thei- 
sen's  study  indicates  that  when  pupils  are  sectioned  on  the  basis  of  ability  the 
brighter  classes  make  progress  far  in  excess  of  normal  expectancy.5  In  Haw- 
ley's  study  in  which  pupils  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  were  given  twenty 
weeks'  training  for  the  sole  purpose  of  improving  quality,  there  was  an  actual 
increase  of  43  per  cent  in  the  second  test  over  the  first.  Although  no  attention 
was  directed  toward  the  improvement  of  oral  reading,  the  children  actually 
improved  in  that  phase  of  reading  five  times  as  much  as  they  normally  would 
in  the  same  period  of  time.     Even  though  some  slight  allowance  must  be 


1  Anderson,  C.  J.,  and  Merton,  Elda.  "Remedial  work  in  reading,"  Elementary 
School  Journal,  Vol.  XX  (May  and  June,  1920,  and  January,  1921),  pp.  685-701, 
772-91,  336-48. 

Gray,  William  S.  Remedial  cases  in  reading:  their  diagnosis  and  treatment. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs.  Department  of  Education,  The  Univ.  of 
Chicago.     No.  22,  1922. 

Gray,  William  S.  "Individual  difficulties  in  silent  reading  in  the  fourth,  fifth, 
and  sixth  grades/'  The  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  The  National  Society  for  the  Study 
of  Education,  Part  II,  pp.  39-53. 

Geiger,  Ruth.  "A  study  in  reading  diagnosis,"  Journal  of  Educational  Re- 
search, VIII   (November,  1923),  pp.  285-300. 

Leland,  Bernice.  "Herbert:  a  study  of  difficulty  in  spelling  and  reading," 
Journal  of  Educational  Research,  VIII    (June,  1923),  pp.  49-58.    • 

2  Uhl,  W.  L.  "The  use  of  results  of  reading  tests  as  bases  for  planning  remedial 
work,"  Elementary  School  Journal,  XVII    (December,   1916),  pp.  266-75. 

3.Theisen,  W.  W.  "Factors  affecting- results  in  primary  reading,"  The  Twentieth 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  II,  pp.  1-24 
(relevant  sections). 

4  Gates,  Arthur  I.  The  psychology  of  reading  'and  spelling.  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  Univ.,  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  129,  1922. 

5  Theisen,  W.  W.  "Does  intelligence  tell  in  first-grade  reading?"  Elementary 
School  Journal,  XXII   (March,  1922),  pp.  530-34. 


The  Third  Yearbook  163 


made  for  familiarity  with  the  tests  in  both  silent  and  oral  reading  the 
progress  made  was  considerably  more  than  would  normally  be  expected  in 
the  course  of  an  entire  year.1 

Improvement  in  oral  and  silent  reading  processes — Buswell's  investiga- 
tions show  that  there  is  a  rapid  increase  in  eye  span,  in  rate  of  recognition  of 
words,  and  in  the  regular  progress  of  perception  along  the  lines  in  the  first 
four  grades  in  both  silent  and  oral  reading.  Thereafter  progress  continues 
less  rapidly,  a  fact  which  he  attributed  largely  to  changes  in  the  character  of 
the  materials  read  after  the  fourth  grade.  His  records  reveal  a  high  correla- 
tion between  progress  in  these  elements  of  reading  and  in  word  recognition. 
"As  the  reader  develops  in  span  of  recognition,  rate  of  recognition  and  regu- 
larity of  procedure  along  the  printed  lines,  he  also  becomes  more  mature  in 
the  elements  which  are  measured  by  the  oral  test,  such  as  repetitions,  omis- 
sions, substitutions,  insertions,  and  mispronunciations."2 

Some  of  the  analytical  studies  of  children's  reading  give  rise  to  pertinent 
questions  concerning  the  relative  emphasis  to  be  placed  upon  oral  and  silent 
reading.  One  contention  is  that  when  the  child's  reading  has  developed  to 
a  point  where  the  rate  of  silent  reading  begins  to  exceed  the  rate  of  articula- 
tion the  major  emphasis  in  reading  should  be  changed.  In  the  first  three 
grades,  the  rate  of  articulation  appears  to  be  greater  than  the  rate  of  recogni- 
tion. Under  ordinary  conditions,  however,  the  rate  of  recognizing  words 
increases  rapidly  and  surpasses  the  rate  of  articulation  by  the  time  the  fourth 
grade  is  reached.  There  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  the  rate  of  recognition 
would  not  surpass  the  rate  of  articulation  even  earlier  were  children  given 
suitable  training  in  silent  reading  in  the  first  few  years  of  school.  Owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  rate  of  oral  reading  cannot  exceed  the  rate  of  articula- 
tion and  that  articulation  increases  relatively  little  from  grade  to  grade,  the 
rate  of  oral  reading  increases  much  less  rapidly  than  the  rate  of  silent  read- 
ing and  lags  far  behind  it  by  the  time  the  upper  grades  are  reached.3  The 
"stumbling"  of  fourth  grade  pupils  who  were  good  oral  readers  in  the  lower 
grades  is  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  rate  of  recognition  far  exceeds  the 
rate  of  articulation.     Professor  Judd  maintains  that  such  facts  as  these  are 


1  Hawley,  W.  E.  "The  effect  of  clear  objectives  on  the  teaching  of  reading," 
Journal  of  Educational  Research,  III    (April,  1921),  pp.  254-260. 

2Buswell,  Guy  Thomas.  Fundamental  reading  habits:  a  study  of  their  develop- 
ment. Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  Department  of  Education,  Univ. 
of  Chicago.     No.  21,  1922. 

3  Courtis,  S.  A.  The  Gary  public  schools- — measurement  of  classroom  products. 
Ch.  VII.     General  Education  Bulletin,  1919. 

Gray,  William  S.  Studies  of  elementary  school  reading  through  standardized 
tests.  Supplementary  Educational  Monographs.  Department  of  Education,  The 
University  of  Chicago,  Vol.  I,  No.  I,  1917. 

Judd,  Charles  H.  Reading:  its  nature  and  development.  Supplementary  Edu- 
cational Monographs.  Department  of  Education,  The  University  of  Chicago,  Vol. 
2,  No.  4,  1918. 


164  Department  of  Superintendence 

evidence  of  the  need  of  placing  the  major  emphasis  upon  silent  reading  from 
the  fourth  grade  on.1  Subsequent  studies  may  show  that  it  should  receive 
major  emphasis  even  below  the  fourth  grade. 

Hindrances  to  progress — The  hindrances  to  progress  are  legion.  It  is 
impossible  to  tell  even  approximately  how  much  each  is  responsible  for  un- 
satisfactory progress.  Among  some  of  the  more  evident  causes  of  unsatisfac- 
tory progress  are  the  following:  (1)  Lack  of  definite  goals  of  attainment. 
The  teacher  who  understands  exactly  what  is  expected  of  her  pupils  and 
when  to  expect  it  will  probably  achieve  her  objectives  much  more  quickly 
than  the  one  who  does  not.  (2)  Low  intelligence.  The  Cleveland  study 
showed  that  the  median  achievement  of  17  first-grade  classes  in  the  slowest 
group  at  the  end  of  the  year  as  measured  by  the  Haggerty  Tests  was  from 
three  fourths  to  one  year  lower  than  that  of  the  median  of  the  16  classes  in 
the  brightest  group.  The  best  class  in  the  slow  group,  however,  exceeded 
by  far  the  poorest  class  in  the  bright  group,  showing  that  lower  intelligence 
does  not  always  mean  slower  progress  in  reading.2  (3)  The  use  of  material 
that  is  too  difficult,  lacking  in  variety,  or  insufficient  in  quantity.  (4)  Mass 
treatment  and  failure  to  provide  for  individual  differences  in  ability.  (5) 
Undue  emphasis  upon  oral  reading.  Oral  reading  as  usually  practiced  is 
exceedingly  wasteful.  If  a  pupil  is  one  of  twenty,  he  waits  for  his  one  op- 
portunity in  twenty  to  read.  The  teacher  commonly  insists  that  he  follow 
closely  the  one  who  is  reading,  thus  denying  him  an  opportunity  to  use  or 
employ  his  time  to  better  advantage.  This  insistence  that  the  pupil  follow 
the  reader,  Judd  maintains,  "tends  to  keep  all  children  down  in  their  silent 
reading  to  the  rate  set  by  the  oral  reading  emphasized  in  the  schools."1  (6) 
Vocalization  or  lip  reading.  The  effect  of  vocalization  is  to  retard  the 
development  of  speed.3  Absence  of  vocalization  is  a  characteristic  of  the 
mature  reader.1  (7)  Lack  of  early  training  or  lack  of  development  in  some 
essential  element  of  reading  ability.  Children  may  be  retarded  in  their  read- 
ing development  because  of  something  neglected  in  their  previous  training  as, 
for  example,  phonics  or  practice  in  phrasing.4  (8)  Fixed  attitudes  or  habits 
of  reading.  A  child  who  looks  upon  reading  as  a  matter  of  pronouncing 
words  is  likely  to  experience  difficulty  in  getting  meaning.  The  more  a 
pupil's  habits  become  fixed  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  secure  improvement.1 


xJudd,  Charles  H.  Reading:  its  nature  and  development.  Supplementary  Edu- 
cational Monographs.     Dept.  of  Educ,  Univ.  of  Chicago,  Vol.  2,  No.  4,  1918. 

2  Theisen,  W.  W.  "Does  intelligence  tell  in  first-grade  reading?''  Elementary 
School  Journal,  XXII   (March,  1922)",  530-34. 

3  Theisen,  W.  W.  "Factors  affecting  results  in  primary  reading,"  The  Twentieth 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  o,f  Education,  Part  II.  pages  1-24. 
(relevant  sections). 

4  Gray,  William  S.  "The  diagnostic  study  of  an  individual  case  in  reading." 
Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  XXI    (April,   1921),  pp.   577-594. 


The  Third  Yearbook  165 


(9)  Failure  to  change  to  other  methods  when  those  in  use  are  no  longer 
appropriate.  Methods  suitable  with  young  children  are  frequently  in- 
appropriate with  older  children.  (10)  Lack  of  interest  and  mental  stimula- 
tion. Children  whose  interests  are  not  aroused  or  who  are  allowed  to 
dawdle  along  at  a  slower  pace  than  they  are  capable  of  going  are  not  likely 
to  make  rapid  progress.1  (11)  Home  language  and  standards.  (12)  Un- 
trained teachers  and  absence  of  proper  supervision.  Relatively  few  teachers 
have  had  modern  training  in  the  teaching  of  reading.  Without  a  well- 
trained  supervisor  to  guide  them  the  teaching  falls  far  short  of  its  possi- 
bilities.    (13)  Physiological  handicaps  of  hearing  and  eyesight. 

Aids  to  progress — An  understanding  of  the  causes  of  slow  progress  fre- 
quently suggests  the  remedy.  Most  of  the  causes  listed  in  the  paragraph 
above  are  fairly  easy  to  remedy  if  teachers  and  school  officials  will  but 
direct  their  attention  to  them.  Among  the  steps  to  be  taken  are:  (1)  A 
careful  analysis  of  objectives  and  the  setting-up  of  standards  of  attainment; 
(2)  improvement  in  the  choice  of  reading  materials;  (3)  adequate  pro- 
vision for  individual  differences;  (4)  more  emphasis  upon  silent  reading; 
(5)  removal  of  special  difficulties;  (6)  development  of  appropriate  reading 
attitudes;  (7)  choice  of  methods  suitable  to  the  age  and  development  of  the 
child;  (8)  greater  attention  to  interest  and  mental  effort;  (9)  training  of 
teachers  in  modern  methods  of  teaching  reading  and  improved  supervision, 
and  (10)  treatment  of  physical  defects. 

IV.  Children's  Interests  in  Reading 

Definite  progress  has  been  made  in  discovering  the  reading  materials 
which  make  the  strongest  appeal  to  children,  the  factors  in  these  materials 
which  appeal  to  children's  interests,  and  the  types  of  material  which  should 
be  avoided  if  the  time  devoted  to  reading  is  to  be  spent  to  best  advantage. 
Most  of  the  investigations  concerning  these  matters  are  referred  to  in  more 
or  less  detail  in  other  sections  of  the  report  of  the  Sub-committee  on  Reading. 
It  is  proposed  at  this  point  to  describe  briefly  the  methods  employed  in  the 
study  of  children's  interests  in  reading  and  to  direct  attention  to  certain 
general  conclusions  which  these  studies  justify. 

One  of  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  more  recent  studies2 
is  the  fact  that  the  preferences  or  judgments  of  children  received  careful 


1  Brown,  H.  A.  "Formulation  of  method  in  reading,"  Journal  of  Educational 
Research,  II   (June,  1920).    436-451. 

Zirbes,  Laura.  "Diagnostic  measurement  as  a  basis  for  procedure,"  Elementary 
School  Journal,  XVIII  (March,  1918),  505-22. 

2  Dunn,  Fannie  W.  Interest  factors  in  primary  reading  material.  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  Univ.,  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  113,  1921,  p.  70. 

Jordan,  Arthur  M.  Children's  interests  in  reading.  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
Univ.  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  107,  1921,  p.  143. 

Uhl,  Willis  L.  Scientific  determination  of  the  content  of  the  elementary  school 
course  in  reading.  Univ.  of  Wisconsin  Studies  in  the  Social  Sciences  and  His- 
tory, No.  4,  1921,  p.  144. 


166  Department  of  Superintendence 

consideration.  In  the  case  of  younger  children  this  information  was  ob- 
tained by  having  them  express  choices  between  pairs  of  selections  read  to 
them.  Older  pupils  wrote  answers  to  carefully  prepared  questionnaires  and 
took  comprehension  tests.  Both  their  school  and  home  reading  was  checked 
in  this  way.  Careful  observations  were  also  made  of  children's  library 
choices  and  reports  were  obtained  from  publishers  showing  sales  of  children's 
books.  Great  care  was  taken  to  obtain  spontaneous  responses  of  children's 
preferences  rather  than  answers  which  they  thought  would  please  the 
teachers.  The  judgments  and  experiences  of  teachers  with  reading  materials 
were  checked  and  rechecked  by  questionnaires,  making  available  facts  which 
should  have  wide  influence  upon  the  selection  and  gradation  of  reading 
materials. 

Among  the  factors  appealing  most  strongly  to  young  children1  are  surprise 
and  plot.  In  addition,  boys  are  attracted  by  animalness  and  girls  by  childness 
and  familiar  experience.  Older  pupils2  are  intelligently  responsive  to  inter- 
esting action j  characters,  and  problems  which  challenge  their  thinking.  Sex 
differences  appear  between  the  ages  of  ten  and  thirteen,  boys  being  most  in- 
terested in  stories  of  heroism  and  adventure,  and  girls  in  home  and  school 
situations,  especially  those  portraying  kindness.  However,  adventure  and 
humor,  kindness,  faithfulness,  and  loyalty  always  make  strong  appeals  to 
older  pupils. 

The  factors3  most  to  be  avoided  are  over-maturity,  too  great  difficulty, 
and  hard  symbolism.  There  is  no  question  but  that  certain  selections  have 
long  been  imposed  on  children  before  they  were  prepared  for  them.  Many 
of  the  difficulties  of  teachers  have  arisen  because  they  have  been  expected  to 
teach  materials  of  too  great  difficulty  to  their  pupils.  Recent  investigations 
point  the  way  to  wise  elimination  of  certain  selections  which  have  become 
traditional. 

An  appeal  for  a  greater  variety  of  interesting  factual  material  for  pupils 
of  all  grades  grows  out  of  the  discovery3  of  the  varied  interests  of  children 
and  of  the  poverty  of  well-written  material  suited  to  those  interests.  At 
the  same  time  children's  dislike  of  selections  "written  down"  for  them  is 
evident.  Questions  arise  also  concerning  the  need  for  a  common  core  of 
literary  material  which  all  elementary  pupils  shall  read  and  concerning  the 
need  for  standards  by  which  literary  materials  may  be  evaluated  and  selec- 
tions appropriate  for  use  in  the  various  grades  chosen. 


1  Dunn,  Fannie  W.  Interest  factors  in  primary  reading  material.  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  Univ.,  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  113,  1921,  p.  70. 

2  Jordan,  Arthur  M.  Children's  interests  in  reading.  Teachers  College,  Colum- 
bia Univ.,  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  107,  1921,  p.  143. 

3  Uhl,  Willis  L.  Scientific  determination  of  the  content  of  the  elementary  school 
course  in  reading.  Univ.  of  Wisconsin  Studies  in  the  Social  Sciences  and  History, 
No.  4,  1921,  p.  144. 


The  Third  Yearbook  167 

V.  Results  of  Investigations  of  Reading  Materials 

The  results  of  investigations  of  reading  materials  can  be  discussed  in 
terms  of  five  problems — namely,  types  of  content  in  readers,  the  duplication 
of  reading  material,  the  effect  of  increasing  difficulty  in  speed  and  quality  of 
reading,  the  importance  of  growth  stages,  and  types  of  desirable  reading 
materials. 

Types  of  content  in  readers.  Vinal  *  examined  "thirty-three  of  the  best 
and  most  used  first  readers"  and  reported  upon  them  in  1918.  His  purpose 
was  to  find  out  how  much  factual  scientific  material  these  books  contained. 
He  found  that  "over  50  per  cent  of  the  stories  in  these  readers  are  about 
animals.  Only  33  per  cent  of  these  animal  stories  are  true  to  nature.  The 
other  66  per  cent  are  either  fables  or  personifications  where  animals  act  and 
talk  as  human  beings.  For  every  five  animal  stories,  there  is  one  plant  story 
and  one  geography  story,  such  as:  The  wind,  the  rain,  or  the  Eskimo.  .  .  . 
The  cat  is  written  about  more  than  any  other  animal.  Out  of  thirty-eight 
cat  stories  fourteen  are  of  the  fairy  type,  fourteen  are  about  cats  who  talk 
as  human  beings,  and  ten  are  true  to  cats  and  their  doings."  Most  of  the 
stories  of  cats  which  are  true  are  of  the  following  style :  "See  mamma.  See 
kitty.  Mamma,  see  kitty."  Vinal  summarized  his  results  by  saving  that 
first-grade  readers  should  contain  more  selections  which  portray  the  every- 
day activities  of  animals  or  facts  about  nature. 

Starch2  conducted  an  investigation  to  determine,  first,  to  what  extent 
current  textbooks  in  reading  agree  or  differ  as  to  the  nature  of  the  material 
and  as  to  specific  selections  included ;  and  second,  to  what  extent  there  are 
changes  in  the  nature  of  the  material  from  grade  to  grade.  With  these 
aims  in  view  he  analyzed  the  contents  of  ten  textbooks  in  each  elementary 
school  grade  and  classified  them  under  sixteen  different  headings.  Eighty- 
three  books  from  twenty-three  different  sets  or  series  were  included  in  the 
study.  The  analysis  revealed  wide  differences  in  types  of  content  for  lower- 
grade  and  upper-grade  books.  For  example,  the  three  leading  types  in  the 
first-grade  books  studied  are  "animals,"  "boys  and  girls,"  and  "folklore." 
These  constitute  61  per  cent  of  the  content  of  first-grade  books,  while  they 
constitute  only  3.7  per  cent  of  the  eighth-grade  books.  On  the  other  hand, 
"classics,"  "history  and  patriotism,"  "biography,"  and  "poetry"  constitute 
81.7  per  cent  of  the  content  of  the  eighth-grade  books,  but  only  16.7  per 
cent  of  the  first-grade  books.  He  found  also  that  with  the  exception  of 
"classics"  and  "history  and  patriotism"  one  or  more  fourth-grade  books 
omitted  each  of  the  sixteen  classes  of  content.  The  amount  of  overlapping 
common  to  three  or  more  of  the  ten  sixth  readers  examined  is  very  small. 


1  Vinal,     William     G.       "First-grade     readers."       Nature-Study    Review,     XIV, 
(December,  1918),  371-379. 

2  Starch,    Daniel.      "The   contents   of   readers,"    Twentieth    Yearbook   of   the   Na- 
tional Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  II,  pp.  145-151.     1921. 


168  Department  of  Superintendence 

One  poem,  Horatius  at  the  Bridge,  was,  however,  found  in  six  of  the  ten 
readers.  Two  selections,  The  Chambered  Nautilus  and  The  Daffodils, 
were  found  in  four  readers,  five  in  three  readers,  and  eighteen  in  two 
readers. 

Herriott1  attempted  to  ascertain  the  extent  of  the  shift  of  emphasis  in 
readers  for  Grades  VII  to  VIII  from  social  science  content  to  purely  literary 
content.  To  do  this  he  analyzed  the  seventh-  and  eighth-grade  books  of 
five  series  of  readers  which  are  now  in  use.  He  found  that,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  one  series,  every  seventh  reader  contains  more  social  science  content 
than  does  its  corresponding  eighth  reader.  There  is  a  corresponding  increase 
in  pure  literature  in  all  except  one  of  the  eighth  readers.  This  change  in 
emphasis  indicates  a  tendency  in  the  eighth  grade  toward  the  traditional 
work  of  high  school. 

Duplication  of  reading  material — Stone2  analyzed  the  contents  of  fifteen 
second-grade  readers  to  discover  the  amount  of  duplication  of  subject-matter. 
The  books  selected  represent  method  and  content  readers,  extreme  and  con- 
servative, real  and  unreal.  Their  dates  of  publication  varied  from  1906  to 
1916.  Although  he  found  little  exact  duplication  save  in  poetry,  he  did 
find  that  stories  were  virtually  duplicated  in  many  books.  The  range  in 
amount  of  duplication  was  from  0  to  41  selections.  In  terms  of  pages,  the 
amount  of  duplication  varied  from  0  to  121.  A  total  of  seventy-seven  selec- 
tions were  duplicated  in  the  fifteen  readers. 

The  duplication  of  a  few  second-reader  selections  in  books  for  other 
grades  was  investigated.  It  was  found  that  one  selection,  The  Ugly  Duck- 
ling, appeared  in  three  of  fifteen  third-grade  books.  Where  duplication 
existed  within  a  grade,  there  was  evidence  of  agreement  as  to  grading,  but 
the  duplication  of  selections  in  books  for  use  in  different  grades  indicated 
failure  to  grade  carefully.  In  a  later  paragraph  of  this  section  of  the  chap- 
ter, namely,  the  importance  of  growth  stages,  the  duplication  of  content  is 
further  discussed. 

Effect  of  decreasing  difficulty.  McLeod3  set  for  himself  the  task  of 
ascertaining  the  effect  of  increasing  difficulty  of  reading  material  upon 
rate,  types  of  errors  made,  and  the  degree  of  comprehension.  He  tested 
approximately  30  pupils  of  each  grade  from  the  first  to  the  eighth  by 
having  them  read  Gray's  Standardized  Reading  Paragraphs  according  to 
directions.  As  a  test  of  comprehension,  five  questions  were  asked  following 
the  reading  of  each  paragraph.     These  questions  were  given  a  score  value 


1  Herriott,  M.  E.  "The  content  of  seventh^  and  eighth-grade  readers."  English 
Journal,  XII   (April,  1923.)     234-240. 

2  Stone,  R.  E.  "Duplication  of  reading  materials  in  fifteen  second-grade  read- 
ers." Elementary  School  Journal,  XX  (May,  1920),  702-710.  Much  of  the  same 
data  is  also  reported  by  Clifford  Woody  in  the  Journal  of  Educational  Research, 
II,  1920,  465-474. 

3  McLeod,  L.  S.  "The  influence  of  increasing  difficulty  of  reading  material  upon 
rate,  errors,  and  comprehension  in  oral  reading."  The  Elementary  School  Journal, 
XVIII   (March,  1918),  523-532. 


The  Third  Yearbook  169 

of  20  each  and  grades  5,  10,  15,  or  20  according  to  the  degree  of  correct- 
ness. 

He  found  that  the  rate  increases  rapidly  in  Grades  I  and  II  and  then 
more  slowly  until  Grade  VI.  Plateaus  in  the  curve  of  progress  occur  from 
Grades  III  to  V  and  from  Grades  VI  to  VIII.  In  Grades  I  and  II  the 
rate  of  reading  is  slow,  but  from  Grade  III  upward  the  rate  of  recognition 
is  in  advance  of  the  rate  of  vocalization  for  paragraphs  1  to  4.  This  is 
explained  by  the  fact  that  in  Grades  I  and  II,  the  child  is  learning  to 
associate  printed  symbols  with  words  already  spoken.  When  Grade  III  is 
reached,  the  reading  vocabulary  probably  overtakes  the  spoken  vocabulary. 
At  this  stage  the  learning  of  new  words  in  difficult  passages  retards  the  rate 
of  oral  reading. 

The  types  of  errors  recorded  in  McLeod's  article  are  mispronunciations, 
omissions,  substitutions,  insertions,  and  repetitions.  Of  thes*;,  mispronunci- 
ations were  the  most  common  in  every  grade  save  the  second.  Gross  mis- 
pronunciations were  particularly  prominent  in  the  reading  of  difficult  pas- 
sages. Of  the  substitutions,  it  was  found  that  the  percentage  with  "no 
meaning"  increased  with  the  difficulty  of  the  passages:  "As  the  reading 
becomes  more  difficult,  the  thought  is  lost  in  the  maze  of  difficult  words, 
and  substitutions  are  very  largely  on  the  basis  of  similarity  in  appearance  in 
some  respect,  rather  than  on  the  basis  of  thought-suggestion." 

Comprehension  was  impeded  by  the  new  words  met  in  the  more  difficult 
paragraphs.  The  results  indicate  that  pupils  acquire  ability  to  pronounce 
words  more  rapidly  than  ability  to  derive  their  meanings.  The  test  records 
show  that  the  child's  meaning  vocabulary  was  frequently  exhausted  by  the 
time  the  more  difficult  paragraphs  of  the  test  were  reached  although  the 
pupil's  mastery  of  the  mechanics  of  reading  enables  him  to  continue  to 
pronounce  the  words. 

The  importcuice  of  growth  stages — Uhl1  attempted  to  derive  standards 
for  grading  selections.  The  following  outline  shows  the  procedure  used 
in  obtaining  the  reactions  of  teachers  and  pupils  to  reading  matter : 

Reactions  from  teachers:  Analytical  questions  on  the  content  of  basal  readers; 
Classified  lists  of  titles  of  selections  sent  to  teachers  for  their  comments. 

Reactions  from  pupils:  Representative  selections  presented  directly  to  pupils 
who  read  them  silently  and  reported  in  writing  whether  they  liked  or  disliked 
each  selection  and  why;  Pupils'  comprehension  of  the  selections  measured  by 
questions  on  the  selections. 


1Uhl,  Willis  L.  Scientific  determination  of  the  content  of  the  elementary  school 
course  in  reading.  Univ.  of  Wisconsin,  1921.  Chapter  VIII,  "The  Relation  of 
Reading  Selections  to  the  Standards  of  Grading  in  Various  Schools,"  pp.  102-107, 
and  Chapter  IX,  "The  Placement  of  Reading  Selections,"  pp.  108-146.  Also  re- 
ported by  the  same  author  in  The  Materials  of  Reading,  Silver,  Burdett  and  Com- 
pany, 1924.  Chapter  IV,  "The  Grading  of  Content  for  Reading,"  pp.  47-74.  The 
plan  for  this  investigation  is  given  in  detail  in  W.  W.  Charter's  Curriculum  Con- 
struction, pp.  316-324.    Macmillan  Company,  1922. 


170  Department  of  Superintendence 

Judgments  concerning  the  value  of  several  thousand  reading  selections 
were  obtained  from  over  3000  selected  teachers  of  Grades  I  to  VIII  in- 
clusive. As  a  check  upon  teachers'  judgments,  tests  based  on  certain 
standard  selections  were  given  to  529  pupils  of  Grades  III  to  VIII.  Meas- 
ures were  obtained  of  the  pupils'  interest  in  and  comprehension  of  each  selec- 
tion. 

An  analysis  of  the  responses  of  teachers  shows  that  scores  of  selections  are 
duplicated  in  the  courses  of  study  of  different  grades  just  as  the  statistical 
studies  already  reviewed  lead  one  to  expect.  These  responses  show  also 
that  the  success  of  a  selection  often  depends  upon  the  grade  in  which  it 
is  read.  For  example,  The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamlin,  in  various  versions  was 
reported  for  Grades  II  to  VII  inclusive,  in  different  cities,  while  other 
selections,  The  Ugly  Duckling  and  The  Village  Blacksmith,  recur  in  dif- 
ferent books  until  pupils  are  alleged  to  tire  of  them.  Responses  to  ques- 
tionnaires show  that  children  thus  re-read  certain  selections  instead  of 
extending  their  acquaintance  with  other  selections  or  books. 

Three  significant  types  of  misplacement  of  selections  were  discovered. 
These  types  are  exemplified  by  selections  which  gain  in  favor  from  grade 
to  grade,  selections  which  decline  in  favor  from  grade  to  grade,  and  selec- 
tions which  are  unpopular  in  any  grade  because  of  their  difficulty.  Over 
difficult  selections  were  reported  more  frequently  than  those  of  both  the 
other  types  combined.  Selections  representing  each  type,  together  with  the 
percentages  of  gain  or  loss  in  favor  from  grade  to  grade,  are  cataloged 
in  the  reports  of  this  investigation.  For  example,  the  percentage  of  teach- 
ers approving  Christmas  at  the  Cr  at  chits'  increases  from  73  in  Grade  IV 
to  98  in  Grade  VIII,  and  the  percentage  of  pupils  approving  increases 
from  81  in  Grade  IV  to  90  in  Grade  VIII. 

Only  a  very  few  times  were  given  selections  found  to  be  successful  in 
only  one  grade.  In  other  words,  if  a  selection  is  highly  desirable  for  any 
given  grade,  it  is  likely  to  be  a  favorite  in  at  least  one  additional  grade.  The 
placement  of  a  selection  in  a  single  grade  often  depends,  therefore,  upon 
some  consideration  other  than  its  difficulty,  such  as  the  academic  standards 
of  a  given  school,  the  social  value  of  the  selection,  or  its  relation  to  other 
school  work. 

Significant  positive  correlations  were  found  between  pupils'  interests  in 
and  comprehension  of  selections.  Certain  selections  were,  however,  readily 
comprehended,  although  specific  undesirable  qualities  prevented  their  being 
entirely  successful  in  any  grade.  Conversely,  a  few  selections  which  con- 
tained superior  interest  qualities  were  favored  by  pupils  whose  compre- 
hension scores  for  them  were  low. 

Teachers'  and  pupils'  judgments  also  show  significant  positive  correla- 
tions, although  teachers  generally  rate  selections  slightly  higher  than  pupils 
do.  In  view  of  the  increase  in  pupil  interest  after  a  single  class  discussion, 
the  higher  rating  by  teachers  seems  to  be  justified.  When  the  compre- 
hension scores  of  different  schools  were  compared,  a  variability  of  two  or 


The  Third  Yearbook  171 


more  grades  was  found  for  different  selections — for  example,  in  answer- 
ing questions  based  on  Paul  Revere 's  Ride,  fifth-grade  pupils  of  one  school 
excelled  seventh-grade  pupils  of  another  school. 

Analyses  of  the  comments  of  teachers  and  pupils  of  different  grades  show 
that  pupils  have  varying  reasons  for  interest  in  selections.  Such  qualities 
as  personification  of  animals  and  repetition  add  to  the  interest  of  primary 
pupils,  while  pupils  in  the  later  grades  seem  to  have  increasing  amounts  of 
interest  in  character  analysis  and  other  problematic  situations.  Several 
qualities,  however,  such  as  dramatic  action,  adventure,  and  pleasing  char- 
acters are  apparently  keys  to  interest  in  any  grade.  How  much  of  the 
emphasis  upon  certain  qualities  is  due  to  the  particular  subject-matter  in 
the  selections  cannot  be  determined  from  the  data  obtained. 

Uhl's  investigation,  so  far  as  it  deals  with  grading,  can  be  summarized 
as  follows.  Present-day  practice  varies  widely  in  the  placement  of  many 
selections.  The  success  of  reading  materials  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon 
the  grade  in  which  each  selection  is  read.  A  moderate  amount  of  flexi- 
bility in  the  placement  of  selections  is  desirable  on  account  of  varying  aca- 
demic standards  in  different  schools  and  because  of  the  fact  that  many  su- 
perior selections  are  successful  in  more  than  one  grade.  Choice  of  content 
should  be  made  with  reference  to  the  interests  of  pupils,  many  of  which 
appear  to  be  fairly  constant  throughout  the  elementary  grades. 

Desirable  qualities  of  reading  material — Jordan1  employed  the  question- 
naire and  library  methods  to  discover  children's  interests  in  reading.  By 
the  questionnaire  method,  he  obtained  first,  second,  and  third  choices  of 
3598  pupils  of  Grades  VI  to  XII  as  to  books  and  magazines.  The  books 
named  by  the  children  "were  classified  into  adult  fiction,  juvenile  fiction, 
adventure,  biography,  history,  poetry,  science,  travel,  information,  humor, 
miscellaneous."  The  magazines  named  were  classified  as  "adult  fiction, 
juvenile  fiction,  adventure,  nature,  pictures,  woman's  art,  science,  current 
events,   humor,   miscellaneous." 

It  was  found  that  books  and  magazines  of  adventure  ranked  highest  ac- 
cording to  boys'  choices,  and  that  fiction  ranked  highest  according  to  girls' 
choices.  Favorites  with  boys  were  The  Call  of  the  Wild,  Treasure  Island, 
and  Boy  Scout  Series;  with  girls  the  favorites  were  Little  Women,  Polly- 
anna,  and  The  Girl  of  the  Limberlost.  The  results  indicated  also  that 
the  interest  in  fiction  of  both  boys  and  girls  increases  rapidly  from  the  age 
of  nine  to  the  age  of  eighteen.  The  report  of  this  study  contains  lists  of 
books  and  magazines  classified  according  to  type  and  the  relative  fre- 
quency of  each  book  and  magazine. 

Jordan's  library  investigation  was  made  in  eight  libraries.  Books  and 
book  lists  were  examined  to  find  out  the  extent  of  their  circulation.  Later, 
he  made  over  eight  hundred  observations  to  determine  the  approximate  age 


Jordan,  A.  M.  Children's  interests  in  reading.  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
Univ.,  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  107,  1921.  This  monograph  contains  a 
digest  of  earlier  investigations  of  children's  interests  in  reading. 


172  Department  of  Superintendence 

of  children  who  read  different  books  and  to  discover  differences  between  the 
interests  of  boys  and  girls.  He  found  great  dissimilarity  of  interest  between 
the  sexes.  The  major  interests  of  boys  from  ten  to  thirteen  years  appeared 
to  be  in  books  about  war  and  scouting,  school  and  sports,  Boy  Scouts,  and 
strenuous  adventure.  The  most  popular  authors  for  these  four  types  of 
fiction  were  Altsheler,  Barbour,  Burton,  and  Clements,  respectively.  The 
interests  of  girls  were  chiefly  concerned  with  fiction  which  portrays  home 
life  and  school  life,  fairy  stories,  stories  with  historical  background,  and  love 
stories.  The  most  popular  writers  of  these  works  of  fiction  are:  home  and 
school,  Alcott,  Wiggin,  Sidney,  and  Richards;  fairy  tales,  Dodgson ;  love 
stories,  Woolsey.  An  analysis  of  the  books  read  indicated  that  boys  were 
most  interested  in  books  which  appeal  "to  the  instinct  of  mastery,  fighting, 
love  of  sensory  life  for  its  own  sake,  original  attention  and  approval  and 
scornful  behavior."  In  the  same  way  it  appeared  that  girls  were  most  inter- 
ested in  books  which  appeal  "to  the  following  instincts:  maternal,  kindli- 
ness, attention  to  others,  response  to  approval  and  scornful  behavior,  and 
to  a  less  degree  than  in  the  case  of  boys,  to  rivalry." 

Miss  Dunn's1  investigation  was  conducted  to  find  out  "what  are  the 
elements  in  primary  reading  material  that  are  of  interest  to  children  in  the 
first  three  grades  of  the  elementary  school."  She  began  her  investigation  by 
analyzing  reading  selections  to  discover  the  various  appeals  that  the  exist- 
ing materials  make  to  readers.  She  then  chose  thirty-one  representative 
selections  from  primary  readers  so  that  the  following  "elemental  qualities" 
were  included:  child  characters;  adult  characters;  boy,  the  central  figure; 
girl,  the  central  figure ;  realistic,  historical,  and  geographical  material ; 
fairy  stories,  myths,  folk  stories,  fables,  and  fanciful  themes. 

The  thirty-one  samples  were  arranged  in  pairs  in  such  order  that  certain 
qualities  of  likeness  and  difference  existed  between  each  pair  of  specimens. 
The  samples  were  then  read  in  pairs  to  pupils  who  were  requested  to  indi- 
cate on  "vote  slips"  their  choices  for  each  pair. 

After  subjecting  her  data  to  statistical  treatment,  Miss  Dunn  concluded 
that  characteristic  appeals  are  "surprise  and  plot  for  both  sexes,  animalness 
for  boys,  and  childness,  familiar  experience,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  repetition 
and  conversation  for  girls."  Miss  Dunn  concluded  that  instead  of  a 
child's  having  a  limited  range  of  interests,  his  "tastes  appear  rather  catholic. 
Give  him  a  few  important  elemental  qualities  which  may  enter  into  fact 
or  fiction,  into  prose  or  verse,  into  real  or  fanciful  situations,  and  he  is 
attracted   and  pleased." 


1  Dunn,  Fannie  W.  Interest  factors  in  primary  reading  material.  Teacherji 
College,  Columbia  Univ.,  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  113,  1921.  A  more 
extended  resume  of  Miss  Dunn's  monograph  is  included  in  The  Materials  of  Read- 
ing, by  W.  L.  Uhl,  p.  99-103. 


The  Third  Yearbook  •  173 

In  pursuing  the  investigation  of  reading  material  referred  to  in  an  earlier 
section  of  this  report,  Uhl1  canvassed  teachers  and  pupils  to  discover  inter- 
ests in  and  the  effectiveness  of  reading  selections.  The  information  thus 
obtained  was  classified  and  studied  with  a  view  to  deriving  standards  for 
eliminating  undesirable  selections  and  detecting  superior  selections. 

Teachers'  responses  indicated  that  aside  from  incorrect  grading  of  con- 
tent, the  most  important  undesirable  characteristics  of  reading  selections  are 
abstractness,  lack  of  action,  unreality,  too  great  length,  gloominess,  monot- 
ony, and  poor  literary  style.  Teachers  rated  as  "superior"  selections  which 
contain  combinations  of  qualities  as  follows:  selections  which  portray  dra- 
matic action,  adventure,  heroism,  interesting  non-dramatic  action,  humor, 
fairy  or  supernatural  activities,  interesting  characters,  home  life,  child  life, 
interesting  problems,  kindness,  faithfulness,  animal  play,  or  other  activities, 
personifications,  and  interesting  repetition.  Their  judgments  indicated  that 
selections  have  too  often  been  included  in  readers  for  their  alleged  didactic 
qualities  rather  than  for  the  qualities  just  mentioned,  and  that,  as  a  result, 
many  inferior  or  over-difficult  selections  have  been  published.  The  reports 
of  this  investigation  contain  lists  of  inferior  and  superior  selections  and 
analyses  of  selections  showing  the  reasons  for  the  failure  or  success  of  certain 
selections. 

In  addition  to  obtaining  judgments  about  standard  selections,  Uhl  col- 
lected data  from  teachers  and  pupils  as  to  the  effectiveness  of  certain  in- 
formational selections  contained  in  the  Community  Life  Leaflets.2  These 
selections  were  found  to  be  distinctly  superior  for  use  in  grades  VII  and 
VIII.  This  investigation  emphasizes  the  importance  of  consulting  children 
in  the  selection  and  organization  of  courses  in  reading  and  literature.  This 
view  is  supported  by  the  judgments  of  three  thousand  teachers  whose  con- 
viction about  the  matter  was  expressed  in  no  uncertain  terms. 

In  1919  Gray  and  Bobbitt3  made  a  survey  of  reading  in  Indianapolis. 
After  the  methods  and  materials  had  been  examined  and  tabulated,  desir- 
able standards  of  practice  were  set  up,  and  the  content  of  the  course  of  study 
in  reading  was  judged  by  these  standards. 

Four  stages  in  the  acquisition  of  reading  ability  were  described  by  Gray : 
"the  initial  period  in  attaching  meanings  to  printed  words  (first  grade)  ; 
the   development  of  the   fundamental  habits  and   associations  involved  in 


1  This  investigation  is  also  reported  upon  in  The  Materials  of  reading,  by 
W.  L.  Uhl,  p.  103-148  and  in  his  monograph  entitled  Scientific  determination  of 
the  content  of  the  elementary  school  course  in  reading. 

'Community  Leaflet,  No.  18,  March  1,  1918.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

3  Gray,  William  S.  "Reading  in  the  Elementary  Schools  of  Indianapolis,"  Chap- 
ters III  and  IV.  The  Elementary  School  Journal,  XIX,  March  and  April,  1919, 
506-531  and  608-627. 

Bobbitt,  Franklin.  "Reading  in  the  Elementary  Schools  of  Indianapolis,"  Chapters 
V  and  VI.  The  Elementary  School  Journal,  XIX,  May  and  June,  1919.  665-688 
and  741-761. 


174  •  Department  of  Superintendence 

fluent  oral  reading  (second  and  third  grades)  ;  the  broadening  of  experi- 
ence through  extensive  silent  reading  (fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grades)  ;  the 
independent  application  of  reading  ability  to  all  phases  of  school  work 
(seventh   and   eighth   grades.)" 

The  fact  was  emphasized  that  the  content  for  each  stage  of  development 
must  harmonize  with  its  aim.  During  the  initial  period,  therefore,  the  con- 
tent should  be  interesting  and  valuable  to  children  and  readily  associated 
with  vivid  personal  experiences.  In  Grades  II  and  III  the  content  must 
grip  the  attention  and  be  simple  enough  to  encourage  rapid  reading  and 
to  secure  accuracy.  In  Grades  IV,  V,  and  VI  "an  abundance  of  interest- 
ing reading  material  is  necessary  both  for  the  wide  extension  of  reading  ex- 
perience and  for  the  development  of  ability  to  attach  meanings  to  words. 
."  In  addition  to  this  easy,  extensive  reading,  Gray  advocated  the 
use  of  material  for  training  in  deliberate  reading  such  as  is  required  in  prob- 
lem-solving. 

From  this  point,  Bobbitt  continues  to  the  "most  pressing  current  question," 
which  he  states  as  follows:  "What  is  the  purpose  of  the  reading  experience 
of  intermediate  and  grammar  grades  after  the  simple  mechanics  of  reading 
has  been  mastered?"  The  answer  to  this  question  shows  the  point  of  view 
of  the  entire  discussion:  "The  purpose  is  to  widen  the  vision  and  to  extend 
the  experience  of  the  pupils  beyond  the  confines  of  their  narrow  immediate 
environment." 

The  types  of  experience  to  be  gained  by  reading  are  next  analyzed.  These 
types  include  geographical,  historical,  civic,  scientific,  imaginative,  and 
such  human  experiences  as  are  portrayed  in  general  literature.  For  exam- 
ple, "the  geographical  readings  should  be  such  as  to  permit  our  children 
imaginatively  to  travel  through  the  various  cities  and  countries  and  regions 
of  the  earth.  .  .  .  Reading  of  this  character  should  aim,  not  at  infor- 
mation, but  at  experience.  .  .  .  The  getting  of  information  is  a  por- 
tion of  the  total  experience."  Such  reading  is  advocated  especially  in  gen- 
eral literature.  The  bearing  of  this  type  of  treatment  "on  school  procedure 
is  easily  evident.  It  demands  a  wide  extension  of  supplementary  and  library 
reading  opportunities.  It  demands  much  reading ;  it  demands  easy  reading ; 
it  calls  for  interesting  reading;  it  makes  necessary  a  type  of  technique  of 
education  quite  different  from  the  relatively  ineffective  fact-learning  type." 

Following  these  analyses  is  a  list  of  the  books  used  for  required  and  sup 
plementary  reading  in  Indianapolis.  Having  given  a  statement  of  what 
the  schools  should  teach  and  a  list  of  the  books  in  use,  the  report  continues 
with  an  analysis  of  these  books  in  the  light  of  the  aims  of  the  school.  The 
analysis  was  made  with  reference  to  each  of  the  types  of  content  already 
mentioned. 

Of  the  concluding  recommendations  of  the  survey  report,  the  following 
deal  with  the  content  of  reading. 

That  the  content  of  the  reading  be  chosen  so  as  to  give  the  pupils  width  of 
vision  over,  and  depth  of  insight  into,  all  important  fields  of  human  affairs. 


The  Third  Yearbook  175 


That  the  reading  experience  be  adapted  to  the  degree  of  maturity  and  previous 
experience  of  the  pupils 

That  those  responsible  for  the  reading  content  be  fully  conscious  of  the  purposes 
to  be  served. 

That  reading  materials  should  be  so  graded  .  .  .  that  the  gradient  is  im- 
perceptible. 

That  there  be  an  abundance  of  reading  experience  covering  in  balanced  way 
all  important  fields  of  human  experience. 

That  the  quantity  of  reading  material  available  be  much  greater  than  can  be 
covered  by  any  single  pupil,  however  capable,  in  order  to  provide  for  all  desirable 
types  of  tastes,  desires,  and  appetites. 

Summary — Investigations  have  shown  that  while  no  single  branch  of  con- 
tent has  a  monopoly  upon  the  interests  of  children,  certain  types  have  main- 
tained a  monopoly  of  space  in  readers.  Statistical  investigations  show  that 
there  is  such  close  agreement  upon  many  favorite  selections  that  certain 
textbooks  contain  little  or  no  material  which  is  not  duplicated  in  certain 
other  books.  These  studies  show  also  that  many  of  these  duplications  are 
in  books  intended  for  different  grades. 

Experimental  studies  show  that  children  have  pronounced  likes  and  dis- 
likes for  certain  reading  selections  and  that  the  proper  placement  of  selec- 
tions would  greatly  reduce  dislikes.  The  information  obtained  from  botli 
teachers  and  pupils  show  the  need  for  some  degree  of  flexibility  in  grading; 
also  that  error  is  more  likely  to  occur  as  a  result  of  making  the  course  in 
reading  too  difficult  than  of  making  it  too  easy.  A  sufficient  array  of 
teachers'  and  pupils'  judgments  exists  to  make  possible  the  correct  place- 
ment of  standard  selections. 

All  investigations  here  reported  support  the  conclusion  that  effective 
training  in  reading  cannot  be  given  when  the  content  is  over-difficult.  The 
reasons  which  support  this  conclusion  are  that  over-difficult  content  does 
not  grip  the  reader's  attention,  that  such  content  retards  the  progress  by 
limiting  the  amount  which  can  be  read,  and  that  it  forces  the  child  to  focus 
his  attention  upon  the  mechanics  of  reading  to  the.  detriment  of  compre- 
hension. Likewise,  investigations  indicate  that  the  interests  of  children  can 
be  utilized  to  distinct  advantage  in  both  teaching  and  learning.  These 
investigations  show  clearly  that  while  children  often  desert  the  realm  of 
fine  literature  for  that  which  provides  merely  crude  passing  pleasure,  they 
can  be  interested  also  in  worth-while  literary  selections,  if  they  are  properly 
placed   as  to  difficulty. 

Analytical  investigations  have  defined  the  needs  of  different  periods  of 
development  and  have  shown  the  need  for  a  miscellany  of  content  to  meet 
these  needs.  The  content  should  be  simple,  highly  charged  with  interest,  and 
provided  in  abundance.  It  should  also  serve  as  a  valuable  substitute  for 
real  experience. 

VI.  Scientific  Studies  in  the  Field  of  Literature 

Children's  interests  in  literature  and  the  grading  of  reading  selections — 
The  first  study  of  scientific  validity  to  which  reference  will  be  made  is 


176  Department  of  Superintendence 

that  of  Jordan's.1  He  not  only  used  the  questionnaire  method  more  guard- 
edly than  the  previous  investigators  whom  he  reports  in  his  first  chapter, 
but  he  also  made  the  following  useful  study  of  children's  reading  in  public 
libraries.  He  assigned  points  to  books  according  to  the  number  of  times 
they  were  drawn  out,  rebound,  and  waited  for  in  line,  and  according  to  the 
amount  of  grime  on  the  catalog  cards  recording  them.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  the  four  most  popular  authors  on  the  boys'  book  list  totaled  con- 
siderably more  than  twice  as  many  points  as  the  first  four  books  on  the 
girls'  list.  This  was  not  because  girls  read  less.  Apparently,  in  spite  of  the 
usual  separate  analysis  of  qualities  enjoyed,  the  girls  read  books  on  boys' 
lists  a  good  share  of  the  time.  Jordan  has  derived  a  useful  list  of  the  most 
popular  writers  at  the  time  of  his  study  and  supplemented  it  with  tables 
of  correlation  and  with  an  analysis  of  the  psychological  factors  which  prob- 
ably account  for  interest  in  chosen  books. 

Two  unpublished  studies  made  under  Dr.  Horn's  direction  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Iowa  and  summarized  by  the  authors  in  the  Elementary  English 
Review  have  prepared  the  way  for  a  scientific  determination  of  the  common 
essentials  of  a  literature  course.  Mackintosh2  first  selected  from  good  an- 
thologies one  hundred  poems  for  the  fifth  grade  and  arranged  them  in  ten 
groups  with  like  characteristics.  These  were  typed  in  uniform  fashion  and 
read  aloud.  Each  child  ranked  each  poem  of  the  ten  from  one  ("the  best 
poem  I  ever  heard")  to  six  ("the  worst  I  ever  heard")  ;  each  pupil  also 
selected  five  that  he  liked  best,  and  if  he  were  willing  to  do  so,  marked  those 
he  would  not  recommend  to  another  fifth  grader.  Reasons  were  also  given 
and  used  in  deriving  final  summaries  of  criteria  for  children's  choices. 

As  a  further  experiment,  fifty  poems  selected  as  best  were  tried  in  sev- 
eral fifth  grades  totaling  144  pupils  without  explaining  why  they  were 
given,  and  ranks,  per  cent  values,  and  P.  E.  values  determined.  The  list 
derived  is  significant  because  it  includes  excellent  new  poems  not  commonly 
taught  so  far ;  it  also  omits  many  poems  which  have  been  conventionally  ac- 
cepted. It  is  valid,  of  course,  only  for  the  titles  on  the  original  list  of  100 
verses.  The  summary  of  reasons  reenforces  the  view  that  children  like 
humor,  adventure  and  excitement,  dialect,  rhythm  and  rhyme,  and  under- 
standable experience. 

Garnett's3  study  of  children's  choices  in  prose  followed  the  same  gen- 
eral procedure.  The  stories,  like  the  poems,  were  read  aloud  to  fourth- 
grade  children,  and  24  of  the  original  list  of  80  tried  in  six  fourth-grade 
classes  in  Minneapolis  including  103  boys  and  144  girls.  By  "  a  somewhat 
elaborate  system  of   ranking   and  voting"   these   stories  were   grouped   in 


1  Jordan,  A.  M.  Children's  interests  in  reading,  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
Univ.,  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  107. 

~  Mackintosh,  Helen  K.  "A  study  of  children's  choices  in  poetry."  The  Elemen- 
tary English  Review,  I   (May,  1924),  85-89. 

3  Garnett,  Wilma  Leslie.  "A  study  of  children's  choices  in  prose."  The  Elemen- 
tary English  Review,  I,  June,  1924,  pp.  133-137. 


The  Third  Yearbook  177 


"preferred,"  a  "second  preferred,"  and  a  "least  liked"  list.  The  summary 
of  reasons  stresses  children's  dislike  of  unworthy  traits  of  character,  of 
stories  which  they  term  "silly,"  and  of  those  they  have  heard  too  often.  Five 
of  the  ten  stories  on  the  girls'  preferred  list  are  also  on  the  boys'.  As  far 
as  the  selections  included  are  concerned  the  results  of  this  study  are  very 
suggestive.  It  makes  use  of  a  method  other  than  empiricism  and  adult 
opinion  in  reaching  conclusions  concerning  children's  likes  and  dislikes  in 
reading. 

Cavins'  study,1  also  unpublished,  is  reviewed  briefly  by  Dr.  Lyman  in  a 
recent  article.2  His  investigation  deals  with  a  problem  which  has  not  been 
sufficiently  stressed  in  previous  investigations,  namely  the  comprehension  of 
selections.  This  was  tested  by  asking  pupils  to  copy  the  lines  which  ex- 
pressed the  author's  purpose  or  main  idea  or  central  thought.  Cavins  be- 
lieves that  "unless  60  per  cent  of  a  grade  can  unaided  discover  this  core 
of  meaning  and  40  per  cent  answer  easy  questions  satisfactorily,  the  poem  is 
more  suitable  for  a  higher  grade."  This  surely  is  a  sufficiently  conservative 
position ;  yet  the  study  demonstrated  that  "general  practice  places  poems 
from  one  to  three  grades  too  low  in  the  curriculum."  Such  studies  as  this 
make  possible  more  intelligent  practice  in  the  assignment  of  literary  selec- 
tions, particularly  poems,  to  the  various  school  grades. 

The  effects  of  teaching  literature  upon  the  commonly  accepted  objectives 
of  the  subject — Hosic's  doctoral  study3  relates  to  the  effect  of  the  teaching 
of  literature  in  the  grades  by  conventional  methods  upon  the  purpose! 
usually  accepted  for  this  subject.  Hosic  examined  four  sets  of  reading 
books  for  grades  four  to  six  to  discover  the  helps  to  study  which  they  con- 
tain. "The  emphasis  was  found  to  fall  upon  questions  pertaining  to  the 
language  used  or  the  facts  presented  rather  than  upon  conduct,  technique, 
or  expressional  activities."  In  contrast  to  this,  "imaginative  realization 
of  the  piece  as  a  whole  as  a  means  to  enjoyment  and  the  enrichment  of 
experience  was  found  to  be  central"  among  authorities  as  to  the  nature  and 
purpose  of  literature.  To  weight  these  differing  emphases  Hosic  tested  the 
teaching  of  "four  poems  in  two  pairs  of  sixth-grade  classes  so  as  to  alter- 
nate the  methods  used.  For  example,  Holmes'  Chambered  Nautilus  was 
taught  by  means  of  an  informal  suggestive  presentation  of  the  whole  to 
Class  A  and  by  means  of  detailed  questions  to  Class  B.  Then  Blake's 
Tiger  was  presented  by  means  of  detailed  questions  to  Class  A  and  as  a  whole 
to  Class  B.  Browning's  How  They  Brought  the  Good  News  and  Reed's 
Sheridan's  Ride  followed  in  the  same  way.  Classes  X  and  Y  were  handled 
similarly,"  but  with  poems  and  methods  reversed.     In  a  preliminary  test, 


1  Cavins,    L.    V.      Grading    poems    for    schools    use.      An    unpublished    doctor's 
thesis,  Department  of  Education,  University  of  Chicago,  1924. 

2  Lyman,  Rollo  L.     "What  poetry  shall  we  teach  in  the  grades?"     The  Elemen- 
tary English  Review,  Vol.  1   (June,  1924),  pp.  145-54. 

3  Hosic,  James  F.    Empirical  studies  in  school  reading,  Teachers  College,  Colum- 
bia Univ.,  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  114,  1921. 


178  Department  of  Superintendence 

classes  which  merely  read  over  or  listened  to  the  poems  were  found  to  prefer 
The  Tiger  and  Sheridan  s  Ride  in  a  proportion  of  four  to  one.  Neverthe- 
less, after  both  methods  of  teaching  described  above  had  been  used,  each 
class  when  tested  as  to  its  preferences  was  found  to  choose  whichever  poem 
had  been  taught  to  it  as  a  whole.  Thus  when  studied  at  too  great  length 
favorite  poems  ranked  below  the  less  favored  ones  which  were  more  skil- 
fully and  reasonably  presented.  Care  was  taken  to  find  out  that  the  poems 
which  were  not  taught  at  full  length  were  understood  in  their  essential 
meaning. 

Hosic  concludes:  "There  is  apparently  a  disparity  between  the  aims  and 
methods  of  literature  teaching  per  se  and  the  aims  and  methods  of  classroom 
teachers  and  of  editors  of  textbooks.  The  latter  emphasize  the  linguistic 
element  and  familiarity  with  details  of  fact.  .  .  .  Method  in  teaching 
literature  is  a  powerful  factor,  and  may  practically  determine  the  attitude 
of  a  large  majority  of  a  class  toward  a  literary  selection.  Probably  the 
methods  now  used  both  by  teachers  and  editors  are  largely  unfitted  to  at- 
tain the  objects  set  up  by  critical  and  educational  authorities  for  the  study 
of  literature  in  school." 

Measure  of  appreciation  of  poetry — The  first  successful  attempt  to  de- 
vise a  scientific  measure  of  literary  appreciation  was  that  of  Abbott  and 
Trabue.1  The  experiment  consisted  of  taking  verses  of  acknowledged  and 
recognizable  poetic  merit  and  making  three  spoiled  versions  of  each:  one 
in  which  the  emotional  tone  was  violated  by  more  or  less  obvious  insincerity 
and  exaggeration ;  one  in  which  the  imaginative  quality  was  reduced  to  the 
prosaic;  and  one  in  which  the  rhythm  was  rendered  either  awkward  or  less 
fine  than  in  the  original.  The  four  versions  of  each  stanza  were  put  on  a 
single  page  and  the  reader  required  to  mark  one  best  and  one  worst.  There 
were  in  each  of  the  two  tests  thirteen  such  groups.  Conclusions  were  all 
drawn  from  the  choices  of  best  versions. 

As  the  median  judgments  did  not  vary  much  from  a  chance  distribution 
in  grades  V  to  VIII  inclusive  and  in  many  cases  were  negative,  the  scale 
is  of  no  value  as  a  measuring  device  below  the  high  school.  In  fact,  the 
median  judgments  are  not  preponderantly  in  favor  of  the  best  versions  until 
the  fourth  year  of  high  school  and  the  correlation  of  the  two  tests  X  and  Y 
is  only  .44  for  that  grade.  It  is  only  as  we  come  to  the  group  of  graduate 
students  who  are  majoring  in  English  and  teachers  of  English  that  we 
get  as  high  a  median  as  9.5  from  the  thirteen  specimens  and  a  correlation  of 
.723  between  the  two  tests.  However,  a  distinct  gain  in  appreciation  is 
possible  if  the  tests  are  taken  and  then  discussed  with  high  school  children 
and  with  teachers  of  literature  for  that  matter  although  this  of  course  de- 
stroys their  validity  as  a  measuring  device. 

Detailed  analyses  of  the  versions  preferred  in  certain  school  years  and 
of  the  apparent  conclusions  following  upon  these  facts  are  significant  and 


1  Abbott,  Allan,   and  Trabue,   M.  R.     "A  measure  of   ability  to   judge  poetry." 
Teachers  College  Record,  Columbia  Univ.,  XXII   (March,  1921),' pp.  101-126. 


The  Third  Yearbook  179 


are  interestingly  discussed  by  the  authors.  It  is  noted  that  disturbance  of  the 
rhythm  is  felt  earliest ;  that  the  prosaic  versions  drop  out  of  favor  after 
the  third  year  of  high  school  or  first  year  of  college  in  the  majority  of  pu- 
pils, but  that  the  sentimentalized  or  emotionally  false  versions  are  preferred 
in  nearly  half  of  the  poems  well  into  the  high  school  period,  and  in  two  in- 
stances by  all  save  the  graduate  students.  There  seems  to  be  clear  evidence 
that  sentimentalism,  if  not  positively  promoted,  is  by  no  means  rooted  out 
by  the  procedures  in  school  courses  in  literature.  The  authors  are  led  to 
question  whether  there  is  in  schools  a  tendency  to  inculcate  a  liking  for  ab- 
surdly false  sentiment. 

VII.  Reading  Vocabularies 

This  section  describes  the  purpose  of  representative  studies  of  reading  vo- 
cabularies, outlines  the  methods  employed  in  making  each  investigation, 
and  presents  the  most  important  results.  On  account  of  the  limitations 
of  space,  it  has  been  impossible  to  include  reference  to  all  vocabulary  studies 
or  to  present  in  detail  the  conclusions  of  the  investigations  to  which  refer- 
ence is  made. 

Study  of  the  Vocabularies  of  Beginning  Books  in  Twelve  Reading  Methods1 

Purpose.  The  purpose  of  this  investigation  was  to  determine  the  vo- 
cabularies of  the  beginning  books  of  twelve  different  sets  of  readers,  each 
series  representing  a  more  or  less  distinct  method  of  reading. 

Methods.  1.  Each  word  was  listed  and  its  frequency  determined  for  each 
book.  Where  the  letter  "s"  was  used  as  a  suffix,  the  word  was  counted 
with  the  root  word.  When  other  suffixes  were  added  to  the  root,  the  words 
were  listed  separately.  "It's"  was  not  included  with  "its"  but  was  listed 
separately.  Words  connected  with  a  hyphen  were  counted  as  two  different 
words. 

2.  A  study  was  also  made  of  the  number  of  words  common  to  any  two 
books,  to  determine  the  extent  to  which  the  vocabularies  were  similar. 

Results.  1.  A  total  of  1636  different  words  was  found  in  the  twelve 
beginning  books.  The  number  of  words  introduced  in  a  single  book  ranges 
from  157  to  630. 

2.  Four  of  the  books  have  70  per  cent  or  more  of  the  total  number  of 
words  occurring  less  than  10  times;  four  others  from  60  to  69  per  cent; 
three  from  50  to  59  per  cent ;  and  but  one  less  than  50  per  cent. 

3.  Of  1636  different  words  found  in  all  of  the  methods,  783  are  found 
in  only  one  book.     Only  38  words  are  common  to  all  twelve  books. 

4.  A  large  number  of  words  appear  only  once  in  each  book. 


1  Selke,  Erich,  and  Selka,  G.  A.  "Study  of  the  vocabularies  of  beginning  books 
in  twelve  reading  methods."  Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  XXII,  June,  1922, 
745. 


180 


Department  of  Superintendence 


5.  The  overlapping  of  vocabulary  content  of  each  book  is  shown  defi- 
nitely in  Table  15. 

Table  15. — Number  and  Frequency  of  Different  Words  Introduced  in  Each  of 
Twelve  Beginning  Readers 


Number 

Method                                     of  words  i  2  to  5 

I.  Rational   Method   Ward 546  183  161 

II.  Progressive  Road    579-  140  204 

III.  Beacon    630  164  252 

IV.  Riverside     396  30  155 

V.Gordon    383  79  123 

VI.  Merrill     427  37  122 

VII.  Aldine    157  10  18 

VIII.  Edson— Laing    427  65  138 

IX.  Lippincott    377  82  67 

X.Reading — Literature    209  6  53 

XI.  Natural    436  49  154 

XII.  Winston   308  53  111 


6  to  9  10  to  19  20  plus 

43  53  106 

71  78  86 

76  60  78 

70  71  70 

62  75  44 

99  96  83 

16  28  85 

80  81  63 

68  78  82 
47  45  58 

69  80  84 
53  51  40 


The  Vocabularies  of  Ten  First  Readers1 

Purpose.  The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  the  vocabularies 
of  ten  first  readers  in  common  use  in  American  elementary  schools. 

Method.  The  words  of  the  readers  were  counted  page  by  page  and  the 
frequency  of  each  word  listed. 

Results.  The  report  of  the  study  does  not  indicate  the  exact  number  of 
running  words  tabulated  but  an  estimate  shows  it  to  be  around  92,000.  A 
total  of  3541  words  was  found,  only  96  of  which  appear  in  all  ten  first 
readers,  and  only  69  in  nine  of  the  ten  readers.  Two  thousand  forty- 
eight  appear  four  times  or  less. 

The  results  are  summarized  in  Tables  17  and  18.  The  first  is  a  fre- 
quency table  showing  the  exact  number  of  words  appearing  with  specified 
frequency. 

Table  16. — Percentage  of  Total  Number  of  Different  Words  in  Twelve  Be- 
ginning Readers  Common  to  Any  Two  of  These  Books 


Method 

....I      II 

Ill 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

IX 

X 

XI 

XII 

I 

....       22 

23 

21 

21 

!       22 

15 

20 

23 

16 

20 

20 

II 

35 

27 

3: 

»       34 

18 

35 

36 

22 

33 

34 

Ill 

30 

22       32 

17 

32 

33 

17 

32 

27 

IV 

31 

34 

21 

28 

30 

17 

29 

28 

V 

36 

24 

34 

46 

27 

34 

32 

VI 

22 

35 

35 

23 

34 

35 

VII 

20 

23 

23 

21 

19 

VIII 

33 

25 

30 

39 

IX 

. . 

. . 

24 

39 

31 

X 

•   •        •                    •   . 

. . 

•>■• 

21 

36 

... 

30 

1  Packer,  J.  L.     "The  vocabularies  of  ten  first  readers,"   The  ,  Twentieth   Year- 
book of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  II,  pp.  127-144. 


The  Third  Yearbook  181 

Table  17. — First  Fifteen  Words  Found  in  all  Readers,  with  Their  Frequencies 

Word  Frequency      I     Word  Frequency     ;     Word  Frequency 


the 

5246 

you 

1859 

little 

1037 

and 

3375 

is 

1457 

she 

804 

I 

1929 

it 

1479 

will 

855 

a 

1869 

he 

1015 

not 

732 

to 

1856 

in 

1058 

of 

707 

A  Mastery  Vocabulary  in  Primary  Reading' 

Purpose.  The  purpose  of  this  article  was  to  describe  the  necessity  for 
and  methods  of  developing  a  basic  vocabulary  built  upon  a  basal  reading 
textbook  series  in  use  in  a  school  system.  Teachers  frequently  feel  that 
story  readers  are  unsatisfactory  for  use  due  to  the  large  vocabulary  involved. 
To  eliminate  this  difficulty  a  vocabulary  analyses  was  made  of  the  basic 
readers  (Winston)   in  this  school  system   (Springfield,  111.). 

Method.  The  study  involved  the  checking  of  each  book  of  the  series, 
listing  the  different  words,  scoring  their  frequency  in  each  book,  noting  the 
words  which  held  over  from  volume  to  volume,  and  the  final  selection  of  the 
words  comprising  the  mastery  vocabulary  from  those  having  the  highest 
frequency  in  the  greatest  number  of  stories.  The  words  in  the  second 
reader  were  scored  only  as  different  words,  no  frequency  score  being  kept. 
Notes  were  taken  of  the  words  which  were  repeated  from  the  primer  and 
first  reader.  The  list  was  finally  compared  with  the  list  submitted  by  E.  T. 
Housh  in  the  Seventeenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study 
of  Education,  Part  I,  Chapter  IV.  Since  this  list  is  based  upon  the  analy- 
sis of  ten  different  second  readers,  presumably  a  list  of  words  common  to  his 
list  and  an  analysis  of  the  Winston  second  reader  would  consist  of  words 
worth  mastering. 

Results.  680  different  words  were  selected  for  mastery  in  the  first  three 
grades,  plus  100  more  whose  root  forms  were  included  in  the  680  listed  but 
whose  endings  were  sufficiently  different  to  demand  attention. 

This  list  was  then  checked  against  the  five  groups  of  five  hundred  words 
each  having  greatest  frequency  of  appearance  in  Thorndike's  "Teachers 
Word  Book."  Four  hundred  eight  of  the  680  words  selected  were  found 
in  Thorndike's  first  five  hundred.  Great  similarity  was  also  found  between 
this  list  and  the  list  in  the  Horn-Ashbaugh  Speller. 

Analysis  of  the  Vocabularies  of  Ten  Second-Year  Readers2 

Purpose.  The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  scientifically  the 
vocabulary  of  ten  second  readers  in  common  use. 

Method.  The  words  of  each  of  the  ten  readers  were  first  counted,  page 
by  page,  and  each  word  listed,  together  with  the  number  of  times  it  occurred 


1  Brown,  Ethel  M.  "A  mastery  vocabulary  in  primary  reading."  Bulletin  of 
Department  of  Elementary  School  Principals.  Second  Yearbook,  Vol.  2,  No.  4 
(July,  1923),  Chap.  V. 

2  Housh,  E.  T.  "Analysis  of  the  vocabularies  of  ten  second  year  readers,"  The 
Seventeenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part 
I,  pp.  40-45. 


182  Department  of  Superintendence 


on  the  page.  From  this  page  list  the  vocabulary  of  each  book  was  tabu- 
lated in  a  combination  of  an  alphabetical  and  group  system,  together  with 
the  frequency  of  recurrence  of  each  word,  in  the  entire  book.  From  these 
vocabularies  a  tabulation  was  made  showing  the  entire  vocabulary  of  the 
ten  books  arranged  in  the  same  order  as  the  separate  vocabularies  and  con- 
taining the  word-frequencies. 

Results.  1.  The  vocabulary  common  to  all  the  readers  studied  is  given 
together  with  the  frequencies  of  each-  word  that  appeared  fourteen  times  or 
more.  Throughout  the  study,  every  difference  in  spelling  is  counted  as  a 
new  wojd. 

2.  A  critical  analysis  of  the  vocabularies  of  a  series  of  readers  seems  to 
give  a  measure  of  their  value. 

3.  Such  an  analysis  will  aid  in  selecting  supplementary  readers  for 
use  in  connection  with  a  given  basic  text. 

4.  The  readers  in  the  second  grade  contain  quite  different  lists  of 
words.  Of  the  thousands  of  words  in  the  ten  readers,  only  419  are  common 
to  all  ten,  while  when  a  "method"  reader  and  a  "content"  reader  are  com- 
pared, the  number  of  words  common  to  the  two  books  is  still  relatively 
small,  ranging  only  from  655  to  928  words. 

5.  Hundreds  of  the  words  used  in  each  reader  occur  only  once,  twice, 
or  three  times  in  that  reader,  thus  failing  to  provide  drill  on  these  words. 

The  Reading  Vocabularies  of  Third-Grade  Children1 
Purpose.  An  effort  was  made  in  this  study  to  determine  the  number  of 
words  in  the  reading  and  spelling  vocabularies  of  third-grade  children,  the 
rapidity  of  growth  of  these  vocabularies  from  year  to  year,  the  frequency  of 
the  various  words,  and  the  correlation  of  vocabularies  in  different  texts. 

Method.  Each  word  in  each  book  was  counted  to  determine  the  num- 
ber of  times  it  was  used  in  that  book.  Variations  of  words  were  listed  as 
different  words.  Subject  matter  was  not  checked  unless  the  child  was  re- 
quired to  read  it  or  to  spell  the  words  it  contained. 

Table  18. — Total  Frequencies  of  Words  Found  in  Textbooks  Analyzed 

Different  New  Used  Running 

words  words  words  words 

Beacon    Primer 743  743  0  7,007 

Natural    Primer 503  238  265  6,315 

Beacon    First 804  395  409  8,455 

Natural     First 849  265  584  8,878 

Natural     Second 1,770  861  909  25,332 

Natural     Third 3,304  1,888  1,416  34,855 

Hamilton's    Arithmetic 1,282  529  753  12,574 

New  World  Speller   (Reading) 450  58  392  2,705 

Total     (Reading) 9,704  4,977  4,728  106,121 

New  World   Speller    (Spelling 

Vocabulary) ' 1,453  213  1,240  6,767 

1  Gregory,  A.  C.  "The  reading  vocabularies  of  third-grade  children,"  Journal 
of  Educational  Research,  VII   (February,  1923),  127-131. 


The  Third  Yearbook  183 


Comment.  A  list  of  words  of  greatest  frequency  contains  35  of  the  50 
words  of  greatest  frequency  listed  in  the  Ayres  Spelling  Scale.  The  first 
13  words  in  this  list  of  50  words  are  the  same  as  the  first  13  words  in  the 
Ayres  list  of  1000  commonest  words  with  the  exception  of  the  eleventh 
word.  Said  appears  for  that  in  the  Ayres  list.  These  13  words  constitute 
about  26  per  cent  of  the  running  words  in  the  third-year  reading  vocabu- 
lary. Approximately  one-third  of  the  words  in  this  vocabulary  occur  but 
once.  Undoubtedly  this  accounts  for  the  persistence  of  many  of  these 
words  as  difficulties  in  the  upper  grades. 

Determination  of  the  Technical  Vocabulary  of  School   Subjects1 

Purpose.  The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  the  words  abso- 
lutely essential  or  important  in  school  subjects. 

Method. 

A.  Subjects  selected  for  study: 

1.  The  mathematics  group — arithmetic,   algebra,  geometry 

2.  The  language  and  literature  group — English  grammar,  French  grammar, 
Latin  grammar,  German  grammar,  English  and  American  literature 

3.  The  history  and  civics  group 

4.  The  science  group — general  science,  geography,  biology,  chemistry,  physics, 
physiology 

5.  The  manual   arts  group — home  economics,  manual  training 

6.  The  art  and  music  group 

B.    Steps  in  the  analysis  of  texts: 

1.  Selected  texts  in  wide  use.  Number  varied  with  reading  matter  or  diffuse- 
ness  of  vocabulary 

2.  Each  text  read  through  by  at  least  two  readers  who  copied  all  words  that 
they  thought  a  child  might  have  difficulty  in  understanding 

Many  readers  and  many  texts  were  used  to  compensate  for  any  unreliability  of 
the  individual  reader. 

New  words  listed  at  end.  More  and  more  readings  were  listed  until  three 
consecutive  readings  added  less  than  one  per  cent  new  terms. 

Readings  varied  from  eight  in  chemistry  to  twenty-three  in  history.  Two  hun- 
dred twenty-five  were  necessary  to  reach  saturation  point  in  ail  subjects. 

3.  The  procedure  outlined  in  step  2  gave  a  list  of  words  that  varied  from  291 
for  algebra  to  1691  for  general  science.  These  words  were  apparently  not  of 
equal  importance  and  were  therefore  rated  by  teachers  of  the  subjects  as  follows: 
(a)  Checked  twice  words  absolutely  essential  to  the  given  subject;  (b)  Checked 
once  those  words  important  but  not  essential;  (c)  Left  unchecked  unimportant 
words.  The  number  of  teachers  checking  ranged  from  27  in  home  economics  to 
103  in  arithmetic.     The  ratings  in  all  subjects  totaled  796. 

4.  Marked  lists  were  sorted  according  to  subject  and  tabulated  as  follows: 
those  words  checked  twice  were  given  two  marks ;  those  checked  once  were 
given  one  mark;  this  gave  the  complete  number  of  checks  for  each  word  in  each 
list.  (A  word  double  checked  by  50  teachers  equalled  100  marks;  a  word  double 
checked  by  9  teachers  equaled  32  marks.)  Each  word  in  the  list  received  its  total 
marks.  In  algebra  10,931  checks  were  tabulated;  in  arithmetic,  71,180;  in  general 
science,  68,731 ;  etc. 


1  Pressey,  L.  C.     "Determination  of  the  technical  vocabulary  of  school  subjects," 
School  and  Society,  XX   (July  19,  1924),  91-96. 


184 


Department  of  Superintendence 


5.  Words  were  divided  into  four  classes. 

(1)  Essential  vocabulary;  those  words  receiving  one-half  or  more  of  the  possible 
number  of  checks. 

(2)  Accessory  vocabulary;  those  words  receiving  from  one  fourth  to  one  half 
of  the  possible  number  of  checks. 

(3)  Those  words  receiving  less  than  one  fourth  .of  the  total  possible  number 
of  checks  but  which  had  been  found  in  a  third  or  more  of  the  texts — that  is, 
words  appearing  in  the  texts  but  not  rated  as  important  by  the  teachers. 

(4)  Words  not  receiving  one  fourth  of  the  total  possible  checks  nor  appearing 
in  one  third  of  the  texts.     These  were  eliminated. 

The  first  three  classes  were  kept  but  differentiated  in  the  printing.  The  common 
words  in  allied  subjects  were  listed.  The  words  common  to  all  subjects  in  a 
group  were  separated.  The  words  common  to  two  or  more  subjects  in  a  group 
but  not  to  all  were  indicated  by  showing  in  which  subjects  they  were  important. 

The  lists  were  printed  using  capitals  for  essential  vocabulary,  italics  for  acces- 
sory vocabulary,  ordinary  lettering  for  words  appearing  in  texts  but  not  con- 
sidered necessary  by  teachers. 

Results.  The  results  are  summarized  in  Table  19. 


Table  19 — Total  Number  of  Words  for  Each  Class  and  Each  Subject 

Text  Words 
Essential  Accessory      but  not  impor- 

(Caps)               (Italics)        tant    (Roman)  Total 

Common    Mathematics    list 117                   26                  143 

Arithmetic     83                  274                     49  406 

Algebra    151                  116                  267 

Geometry 196                  184                  ....  380 

Common  Language  list  145                    68                  .....  213 

English  grammar    11                    31                  ....  42 

Latin  grammar .        22                   20                  42 

French    grammar    15                    69                  ....  84 

German    grammar    20                   39                  ....  59 

Literature    306                  509                      21  836 

Common   Science  list    191                   24                  ....  215 

General  science 916                  648                  ....  1564 

Biology : 675                  677                     41  1393 

Chemistry    765                 488                     44  1297 

Physics     709                 331                  1040 

Geography     313                  690                    129  1132 

Physiology 293                 493                      80  866 

History 542                 503                  ....  1045 

Music 279                 124                 ....  403 

Home    economics     1189                 433                      32  1654 

Manual  training   365                 390                 ....  755 

"The  number  of  common  words  in  each  group  should  be  added  to  the 

words  for  each  subject  in  that  group  to  find  the  total  number  of  words 
for  each  subject.     For  example,'  the  arithmetic  words  equal  406  plus  143 

common  words  giving  a  total  of  549.     The  same  method  is  used  for  other 
subjects  in   any  group. 


The  Third  Yearbook  185 


Suggested  Uses  of  the  Vocabulary  Lists: 

1.  To  point  out  the  technical  words  for  the  subjects 

2.  In   investigating   failing  pupils 

3.  Form  a  study  list  for  pupils 

4.  Attempt  to  find  weak  spots  in  pupils'  knowledge  of  the  subject 

5.  Indicate  a  method  for  rating  the  "vocabulary  burden"  of  one  text 

as  against  another  (i.  e.    What  per  cent  of  the  words  appear  in  a 
text?) 

6.  Basis  for  tests  in  special  vocabularies 

7.  Suggest  possibility  of  organizing   a   subject  around   the  essential   vo- 

cabulary 

A  Method  for  Measuring  the  "Vocabulary  Burden"  of  Textbooks1 

Purpose.  The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  develop  a  method  for  meas- 
uring the  vocabulary  difficulty  or  burden  of  public  school   textbooks. 
Method.  A.  Two  questions  involved  in  the  elaboration  of  procedure : 

1.  How  many  words  in  a  reliable  sampling  of  the  vocabulary  of  a  text  and 
how  to  select  this  sampling?    2.   How  can  difficulty  be  measured  best? 

B.  Steps — 1.  A  1000  word  unit  was  chosen  as  sufficient.  2.  Estimated 
the  number  of  pages  at  one  line  each  to  get  a  total  of  1000  words.  (500 
pages  in  a  book  at  10  words  per  line  using  every  fifth  page.)  3.  Every  third 
line  used,  except  in  the  newspaper,  where  one  page  was  studied.  4.  The 
different  words  in  each  1000  running  word  sample  were  listed  alphabetically. 
5.  Each  different  word  was  given  the  index  number  from  Thorndike's 
Word  Book.  The  theory  was  that  the  higher  the  median  index  number 
the  easier  the  vocabulary.  6.  A  second  sampling  taken  from  third  line  on 
similar  series  of  pages.     7.   Sixteen  types  of  reading  matter  studied. 

C.  Definitions — 1.  Vocabulary  range-number  of  different  words  in  1000  ; 

2.  Zero  value  words — those  words  not  found  in  the  10,000  of  Thorndike's 
Word  Book;  3.  weighted  median  index  number — -median  index  number 
with  zero-value  words  counted  twice. 

Conclusions. 

A.  Limitations  pointed  out  by  author 

1.  Question  as  to  reliability  of  such  a  sampling. 

2.  A  summary   like   the   above  leaves  out   important   elements.      Any 
average  covers  up  points  that  a  complete  distribution  would  show. 

3.  Any  faults  and  errors  in  the  Thorndike  Word  List  are  involved. 

B.  Potentialities. 

1.  Reliability  may  be  increased  by  using  more  1000  word  counts. 

2.  Method  useful  in  finding  the  vocabulary  distribution  throughout  a 
text,  for  example,  the  first  chapter  versus  the  last. 


1  Pressey,  S.  L.  and  Lively,  Bertha  A.  "A  method  for  measuring  the  vocabulary- 
burden  of  textbooks,"  Educational  Administration  and  Supervision,  Volume  IX, 
October,  1923,  389-398. 


186 


Department  of  Superintendence 


3.  Method  is  far  superior  to  any  guess. 

4.  Useful  in  studying  overlapping  in  vocabularies  which  might  be  very 
important,  as  in  general  science  and  chemistry. 

Results.  The  important  results  are  summarized  below: 


Zero  Value 

Words         Weighted     Median 
12  12 


4 

4 

86 

88 

9 

9 

78 

83 

7 

6 

77 

79 

12 

20 

71 

62 

24 

.  11 

63 

69 

15 

17 

65 

66 

21 

30 

67 

65 

43 

34 

43 

54 

49 

45 

33 

37 

35 

24 

38 

45 

24 

30 

38 

40 

22 

25 

52 

50 

30 

30 

43 

45 

57 

57 

28 

34 

67 

69 

22 

14 

60 

59 

24 

32 

.08 

94 

4 

10 

Range 

Books                               1*  2* 

Second  Readers:  Jones 371  359 

Horace    Mann  412  421 

Aldine    367  353 

Fourth  Readers:  Jones 471  454 

Aldine    450  455 

Horace    Mann  466  472 

Stevenson:   Kidnapped    402  415 

Thackeray:    Vanity    Fair 490  459 

Columbus    Dispatch    528  581 

Same  without  Local  Names..  514  560 

Muzzey :    American    History.  533  506 
Ciark:  Introduction  to 

Science     483  491 

Clark:    General    Science    480  463 

Hunter:  Elements   of  Biology  464  467 

Elementary  Chemistry**   ....  399  358 

Kimball:     College    Physics..  393  405 

Howell:  Physiology    442  473 

*  Samplings 

**  McPherson  and  Henderson 


Word  Knowledge  in  the  Elementary  School1 

Purpose.  The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  "the  frequency  of 
occurrence  of  words  in  the  talk  our  pupil  and  graduate  will  or  should  hear, 
and  the  books,  articles,  letters,  and  the  like,  which  he  will  or  should  hear." 

Method.  The  words  in  a  part  or  all  of  each  of  forty-one  sources  in- 
cluding materials  read  by  children  and  by  adults  were  counted.  A  plural 
formed  by  adding  j-  was  not  counted  separately,  but  entered  under  the  sin- 
gular form.  "The  same  procedure  was  followed,  except  in  certain  cases  for 
special  reasons,  with  plurals  where  y  is  replaced  by  \es,  adverbs  formed  from 
adjectives  by  adding  ly,  comparatives  formed  by  adding  er  or  r,  superlatives 
formed  by  adding  est  or  st,  verb  forrns  derived  by  adding  Sj  ed  or  d,  n,  and 
ing,  in  cases  where  the  derived  form  would  probably  be  easily  read  and 
understood  by  the  pupil  when  he  experienced  it,  if  he  knew  the  primary 
word.  Adjectives  formed  from  proper  nouns  by  adding  n  are  also,  as  a 
rule,  counted  with  the  noun."  The  frequency  of  each  word  was  determined 
first  for  each  source  separately.  These  frequencies  were  then  added  and  the 
result  thus  obtained  was  called  the  "sum  of  credits"  or  "credit  sums." 


1  Thorndike,    E.    L.      "Word    knowledge    in    the    elementary  ,  school,"     Teachers 
College  Record,  XXII    (September,   1921),  334-370. 


The  Third  Yearbook  187 


Results.  The  study  resulted  in  the  most  comprehensive  usable  word 
list  which  is  available.  Ten  thousand  of  these  words,  together  with  their 
"credit  sums"  are  published  in  the  Teachers  Word  Book,  published  by 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

The  following  uses  of  the  word  list  are  suggested  by  Thorndike:  Aids 
in  determining  words  which  merit  emphasis  in  teaching;  aids  in  establishing 
and  clarifying  standards  for  grades  and  by  ages;  aids  in  evaluating  text- 
books or  in  determining  the  suitability  of  their  vocabularies;  helps  in  the 
grading  and  selection  of  readers;  aids  in  determining  phonic  elements  which 
occur  most  frequently;  suggests  a  basis  or  standard  vocabulary  for  use 
in  teaching  English  to  foreigners;  suggests  additions  to  existing  spelling 
scales;  and  aids  in  improving  reading  tests. 

VIII.  The  Evaluation  of  Teaching  Techniques 

The  problem.  Current  practice  in  reading  has  been  the  topic  of  much 
criticism.  Many  widely  prevalent  techniques  are  so  manifestly  out  of  line 
with  sound  aims  that  it  would  seem  to  be  superfluous  to  submit  them  to 
experimental  evaluation.  Critical  writers1  have  long  been  convinced  of  the 
need  for  a  thoroughgoing  reconstruction  of  reading  techniques.  Judd  main- 
tains that  the  time  for  minor  revisions  is  over  and  points  the  need  for  em- 
bodying fundamental  revisions  in  an  experimental  program  for  evaluation. 

Meanwhile,  although  numerous  independent  studies  have  provided  a  sci- 
entific basis  for  fundamental  changes,  these  have  only  recently  been  incor- 
porated in  an  inclusive  program  of  reading  instruction.2  Certain  special 
techniques  have  been  evaluated  with  reference  to  immediate  and  restricted 
outcomes.  Such  studies  are  less  significant  to  curriculum  workers  than  ex- 
periments which  eventuate  with  conclusions  of  more  general  import.  The 
increased  relative  significance  of  silent  reading  in  grades  above  the  third 
is  quite  generally  acknowledged,  but  the  traditional  techniques  of  instruc- 


^attell,  J.  McK.    Mind.     1S86.     pp.  65  and  531. 

Huey,  E.  B.  "Preliminary  experiments  in  the  physiology  and  psychology  of 
reading."     American  Journal  of  Psychology,  XI,   (July,  1898)   1-20. 

Dearborn,  W.  A.  The  psychology  of  reading.  Columbia  Univ.  Contributions 
to  Philosophy  and  Psychology,  Vol.  XIV,  No.  1.  New  York:  Science  Press,  1906. 
136  p. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  "Reading  as  reasoning."  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology 
(June  1917),  pp.  323-32. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  with  the  cooperation  of  W.  S.  Gray,  C.  T.  Gray,  Katherine  Mc- 
Laughlin, Clara  Schmitt,  and  A.  R.  Gilliland.  Reading:  its  nature  and  develop- 
ment. Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  Vol.  II,  No.  4.  Chicago:  Depart- 
partment  of  Education,  University  of  Chicago,  1918.     Pp.  146-155. 

2  Twenty-Fourth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education. 
Bloomington,  111.:  Public  School  Pub.  Co.,  1925.     Pp.  200. 


188  Department  of  Superintendence 

tion  in  oral  reading  are  so  comfortably  familiar  to  teachers  that  they  often 
persist  in  the  face  of  cumulative  evidence1  of  the  significance  of  silent  read- 
ing. This  conservatism  is  perhaps  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  recommenda- 
tions were  not  accompanied  by  specific  suggestions  as  to  desirable  techniques 
or  preferred  procedures. 

Contributions  of  specific  studies.  The  formulation  of  practical  pro- 
cedures and  the  evaluation  of  techniques  are,  however,  a  stupendous  co- 
operative task  which  has  been  visioned  more  clearly  than  it  has  been  re- 
alized.2 Some  factors  which  determine  the  comparative  desirability  of  vari- 
ous techniques  are  psychological.  The  early  investigations  of  Cattell,  Boggs, 
Huey,3  show  that  (a)  Meaning  should  be  stressed  from  the  very  begin- 
ning; (b)  Words  are  more  readily  recognized  if  presented  in  context;  (c) 
For  beginners  especially  the  procedure  should  avoid  direct  emphasis  on 
recognition  of  words  and  sounds. 

Buswell4  compared  contrasting  methods  of  beginning  reading  by  a  thor- 
ough-going analysis  of  pupil  performance  and  concluded  that  methods  should 
not  be  judged  by  their  outcomes  at  the  end  of  the  first  grade.  Immediate 
results  in  skill  may  have  been  obtained  at  the  expense  of  habits  which  influ- 
ence later  development.  Thus  it  is  necessary  to  evaluate  techniques  with 
reference  to  the  nature  and  range  of  their  ultimate  effects  on  reading  devel- 
opment. This  study  also  shows  the  specific  effects  of  techniques.  For  exam- 
ple, training  in  word  recognition  cannot  be  assumed  to  transfer  to,  or  be 
automatically  transformed  into,  general  reading  ability.  Abilities  are  gen- 
eral only  when  the  specific  elements  of  training  and  experience  have  been 
varied   and   inclusive. 


1  Judd,  C.  H.  "Relation  of  school  expansion  to  reading."  Elementary  School 
Journal,  XXII,    (December,   1922),  253-266. 

Gray,  W.  S.  "The  importance  of  intelligent  silent  reading,"  Elementary  School 
Journal,  XXIV,   (January,  1924). 

2  Horn,  E.  The  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education.  Introduction.  Bloomington:  Public  School  Publishing  Co.,  1921.  Pp. 
VII-IX. 

Horn,  E.  The  Objectives  in  Reading  as'  a  Guide  to  Remedial  and  Prophylactic 
Work,"  pp.  287-96.  Second  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Elementary  School  Prin- 
cipals, Washington :  The  Department  of  Elementary  School  Principals  of  the 
N.  E.  A. 

3  Cattell,  J.  McK.     Mind,  1886. 

Boggs,  Lucinda.     "How  children  learn  to  read,"  Pedagogical  Seminary,  XII,  1905. 
Huey,    Edmund    B.      The   Psychology   and   Pedagogy    of   Reading.      New    York : 
Macmillan,  1908. 

4  Buswell,  Guy  T.  Fundamental  reading  habits:  a  study  of  their  development. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  No.  21.  Chicago:  Department  of  Educa- 
tion, University  of  Chicago,  1922.     Chapter  III,  p.  103. 


The  Third  Yearbook  189 


The  specific  nature  of  reading  habits  is  also  strikingly  shown  by  C.  T. 
Gray,1  and  by  Judd  and  Buswell.2  In  the  intermediate  grades  special  sets 
of  habits  must  be  developed  to  enable  pupils  to  cope  with  study  materials 
effectively.  Teachers  should  study  the  effects  of  instruction  and  select 
techniques  and  organize  procedures  with  reference  to  their  probable  out- 
comes. The  purposeful  selection  of  techniques  in  terms  of  varied  objectives 
is  conducive  to  flexibility  of  reactions  and  the  adjustment  of  reading  habits 
to  varying  purposes,  needs,  or  content. 

Gates3  shows  that  special  reading  and  study  technique  can  be  developed 
and  that  the  transfer  from  one  type  of  training  to  another,  while  positive, 
is  too  small  to  be  depended  upon.  Training  must,  therefore,  be  many- 
sided.  Practice  exercises  should  be  so  framed  that  the  pupils  are  conscious 
of  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  reading,  and  so  that  all  pupils  are  held 
responsible  for  the  results.  Certain  test  techniques  mav  suggest  economical 
procedures  for  such  training. 

Horn4  suggests  that  speed  and  comprehension  are  not  the  ultimate  ob- 
jectives in  teaching  reading  but  that  objectives  must  be  stated  in  terms 
of  needs,  situations,  and  activities  in  life.  He  also  maintains  that  techniques 
must  be  evaluated  broadly  and  with  reference  to  these  objectives,  rather 
than  by  reference  to  their  effect  on  standard  test  scores.  That  does  not 
imply  that  comprehension  and  rate  are  insignificant  but  rather  that  they 
are  too  general  for  the  organization  and  evaluation  of  specific  procedures. 

This  criticism  is  particularly  significant  with  reference  to  the  develop- 
ment of  abilities  which  are  not  taken  into  account  by  standardized  tests. 
Dr.  Hosic's5  study  is  an  example  of  a  direct  evaluation  of  procedure  and 
non-skill  outcomes.  Theisen6  evaluates  the  effect  of  extensive  reading  by 
correlating  amount  read  with  growth  in  ability.     In  the  same  book  informal 


1  Gray,  C.  T.  Types  of  reading  ability  as  exhibited  through  tests  and  laboratory 
experiments.  Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  No.  5.  Chicago:  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  Univ.  of  Chicago,  1917.     XIII:  196. 

"  Judd,  C.  H.,  and  Buswell,  G.  T.  Silent  reading:  a  study  of  the  various  types. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  No.  23.  Chicago:  Department  of  Edu- 
cation, University  of  Chicago,  1922.     XIV,  pp.  160. 

3  Gates,  A.  I.,  and  Van  Alstyne,  D.  "General  and  specific  effects  of  training  in 
reading,"   Teachers  College  Record,  XXV,    (March,   1924),  98-123. 

4  Horn,  E.  "The  objectives  in  reading  as  a  guide  to  remedial  and  prophylactic 
work,"  287-96.  Second  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Elementary  School  Prin- 
cipals.   Wash.,  D.  C.     Department  of  Elementary  School  Principals  of  the  N.  E.  A. 

5  Hosic,  J.  F.  Empirical  studies  in  school  reading.  Teachers  College  Contribu- 
tions to  Education,  No.  114.  New  York:  Teachers  College  Bureau  of  Publica- 
tions, 1921. 

6  Theisen,  W.  W.  "Factors  affecting  results  in  primary  reading,"  pp.  1-25. 
Tiventieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.  Bloom- 
ington:  Public  School  Pub.  Co.,  1921. 


190  Department  of  Superintendence 

tests  are  used  to  measure  the  effectiveness  of  certain  techniques.1  The 
latter  is  an  attempt  to  measure  the  spread  of  effects  in  an  activity  which 
combines  reading  with  other  activities.  Hoover2  evaluated  certain  indi- 
vidual phrase  card  drills  with  action  responses  by  using  the  Monroe  Stan- 
dardized Silent  Reading  Test  before  and  after  a  three-month  training 
period  and  found  that  the  drill  sections  made  more  pronounced  improvement 
in  both  comprehension  and  rate. 

Another  type  of  evaluation  is  represented  by  classroom  studies  in  which 
the  organization  of  the  work  takes  account  of  individual  differences.  The 
progress  of  the  pupils  along  the  lines  of  various  individual  needs  is  re- 
ported. By  such  studies3  the  relative  effectiveness  of  certain  types  of  ad- 
justment to  individual  needs  and  interests  is  shown.  Such  adjustments  are 
highly  effective  when  curriculum  and  materials  recognize  such  needs.  These 
studies  also  show  how  the  early  detection  of  difficulty  is  facilitated  by  the 
regular  use  of  informal  diagnostic  tests  and  checks  on  extensive  reading. 

Summary.  The  aspects  of  techniques  which  have  adequate  experimental 
sanction  are: 

1.  The  presentation  of  words  in  context  in  work  with  beginners. 

2.  Emphasis  on  meaning  from  the  very  beginning. 

3.  Emphasis  on  silent  reading  in  grades  above  the  third. 

4.  The  use  of  informal  tests  as  a  regular  part  of  silent  reading  technique. 

5.  Provision  for  systematic  development  of  specific  reading  and  study  habits 
through  purposeful  specific  practice. 

6.  The  use  of  varied  techniques  adjusted  to  varied  materials  and  purposes. 

7.  Continued  diagnostic  teaching  and  study  of  pupil  reactions  for  the  purpose 
of  effective  guidance. 

IX.  The  Place  of  Phonetics  in  Teaching  Reading 

Three  distinct  trends  are  noticeable  in  the  studies  bearing  on  phonetic 
training:  (1)  comparisons  of  children  who  have  received  much  training 
in  phonetics  with  children  trained  primarily  in  more  varied  aspects  of  read- 


1  Greene,  H.  A.  Measuring  comprehension  of  content  material  and  Heller, 
Reginia  R.,  and  Courtis,  S.  A.  "Exercises  developed  at  Detroit  for  making  reading 
function."  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Educa- 
tion,   pp.  114-27,  and  153-61.    Bloomington:  Public  School  Pub.  Co.,  1921. 

2  Hoover,  J.  H.  "Motivated  drill  work  in  third  grade  silent  reading,"  pp.  77-89. 
Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Blooming- 
ton:  Public  School  Pub.  Co.,  1921. 

3Zirbes,  L.  "Diagnostic  measurement  as  a  basis  for  procedure  in  reading," 
Elementary  School  Journal,  XVIII,   (March,  1918),  505-522. 

Carswell,  Marion,  and  Beatty,  W.  W.  Reading  and  language  in  the  JVinnetka 
Public' Schools,  pp.  313-29. 

Keller,  Helen  B.,  and  Fernald,  Grace  M.  "Remedial  work  for  non-readers,"  pp. 
333-46. 

Merton,  Elda  L.  "The  discovery  and  correction  of  reading  difficulties,"  pp. 
346-63,  Second  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Elementary  School  Principals. 
Wash.,  D.  C.     Department  of  Elementary  School  Principals  of  the  N.  E.  A. 


The  Third  Yearbook  191 


ing  to  determine  their  ability  to  interpret,  their  spontaneity  of  attack,  and 
their  accomplishment  in  other  phases  of  reading;  (2)  the  discovery  of  the 
individual  needs  of  pupils  with  regard  to  phonetic  training;  and  (3)  the 
evaluation  of  phonetic  elements  to  discover  the  most  essential  elements  for 
use  in  training. 

These  investigations  1  show  that  ability  to  recognize  words  quickly  and 
independently  is  essential  to  contihued  progress  in  reading.  The  question 
remains  as  to  the  degree  to  which  this  fundamental  habit  should  be  de- 
veloped in  relation  to  other  fundamental  reading  habits  at  different  grade 
levels.  Studies  of  eye  movements  by  Judd  2  show  clearly  that  confusion 
arises  when  no  satisfactory  method  of  word  attack  has  been  developed.  He 
recommends  phonetic  analysis  as  a  valuable  method  of  attacking  new  words 
and  of  eliminating  periods  of  confusion. 

The  tendency  of  many  teachers  is  to  question  the  wisdom  of  training  in 
word  calling  at  the  expense  of  right  attitudes  toward  reading  and  of  ability 
to  comprehend.  Investigators  recognize  this  difficulty  but  maintain  that 
training  in  phonetics  is  legitimate  at  a  given  grade  level,  provided  all  essen- 
tial phases  of  reading  are  given  adequate  emphasis. 

Waste  of  time  and  effort  are  indicated  in  the  case  of  pupils  who  have  a 
keen  phonic  sense  when  they  are  held  to  routine  phonic  drills.1  A  large 
number  of  pupils  need  basic  phonic  training.  Foreign  children  without 
satisfactory  language  habits,  children  with  speech  defects,  and  certain 
remedial  cases  in  reading  seem  to  need  more  intensive  training  carefully 
adapted  to  their  specific  difficulties.  Investigations  show  clearly  that  the 
amount  and  kind  of  phonic  training  must  be  adapted  to  individual  needs. 

Evaluation  of  phonetic  elements  is  dependent  in  part  upon  agreement  as 
to  what  constitute  such  elements.  No  such  agreement  exists  in  the 
studies3  which  have  been  published.  Each  investigator  has  defined  and 
classified  the  phonic  elements  somewhat  differently.    The  frequency  of  each 


1  Currier,  L.  B.,  and  Duguid,  O.  C.  "Phonics  or  no  phonics,"  Elementary  School 
Journal,  XVII    (December,  1916),  286-87. 

Currier,  L.  B.  "Phonics  and  no  phonics,"  Elementary  School  Journal,  XXIII, 
(February,  1923),  448-52. 

Buswell,  G.  T.  Fundamental  reading  habits:  a  study  of  their  development. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  No.  21,  Department  of  Education,  Univ. 
of  Chicago. 

2  Judd,  C.  H.  Reading:  its  nature  and  development.  Supplementary  Educational 
Monographs,  Vol.  2,  No.  4,  1918,  Department  of  Education,  University  of  Chicago. 

Ducker,  Mabel  L.  "The  present  status  of  the  teaching  of  phonics  as  shown 
by  an  analysis  of  eighteen  reading  manuals,"  Unpublished  Master's  Thesis,  Univ. 
of  Chicago,  1920. 

Osburn,  W.  J.  "The  relative  value  of  letter  sounds  and  phonograms,"  Mimeo- 
graphed circular  issued  by  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  Madison,  Wis- 
consin, Sept.,  1923. 

Vogel,  M.,  Jaycox,  E.,  and  Washburne,  C.  W.  "A  basic  list  of  phonics  for 
grades  I  and  II,"  Elementary  School  Journal.  XXIII    (February,   1923),  436-43. 


192  Department  of  Superintendence 


element  in  the  reading  vocabulary  examined  in  each  investigation  has  been 
adopted  as  the  measure  of  its  importance.  The  application  of  this  method 
to  a  local  situation  appears  in  the  Winnetka  study,1  and  its  relation  to 
tendencies  shown  in  twenty  basic  series  of  readers  appears  in  Ducker's 
study.2 

Needed  scientific  investigations  in  the  field  of  phonetics  have  been  sum- 
marized by  Gray  as  follows:  "A  comprehensive  study  of  the  frequency  of 
occurrence  of  all  important  phonetic  elements  and  of  the  various  combina- 
tions in  which  they  occur,  based  on  a  word  list  which  shows  the  frequency 
of  words  in  common  use  in  primary  reading  materials;  the  difficulties  pre- 
sented in  teaching  various  elements ;  the  relative  merits  of  different  elements 
and  combinations  in  unlocking  words ;  the  time  at  which  different  elements 
and  combinations  of  elements  should  be  introduced;  the  amount  of  train- 
ing which  different  types  of  pupils  need;  conditions  under  which  training 
can  be  introduced  to  best  advantage;  the  methods  most  effective  in  group 
instruction  and  with  different  types  of  individuals." 

X.     Provision  for  Individual  Differences 

One  of  the  most  important  educational  discoveries  of  recent  years  has 
been  the  fact  that  a  wide  range  of  abilities  is  represented  in  every  grade 
and  subject.  The  existence  of  individual  differences  is  widely  recognized. 
We  know  relatively  little,  however,  of  the  nature,  extent,  and  causes  of 
these  differences.  The  practical  problem  is  to  determine  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble what  these  differences  are  and  how  to  deal  with  them  economically. 
Evidence  points  to  the  need  of  a  considerable  amount  of  differentiated 
instruction  whereas  mass  instruction,  except  in  rare  instances,  has  been  the 
rule. 

The  nature  of  individual  differences  in  reading — The  first  step  is  to 
determine  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  differences.  Such  differences  as  are 
included  by  the  general  terms,  "rate"  and  "comprehension,"  are  relatively 
easy  to  measure,  if  one  will  only  take  the  necessary  pains  to  give  several 
standard  reading  tests.  Differences  in  many  of  the  more  subtle  reading 
traits  are  less  readily  determined.  It  is  even  more  difficult  to  determine 
the  extent  of  such  differences.  It  is  likely  that  the  pupils  of  a  grade  differ 
widely  in  each  of  the  various  ways  in  which  a  child  is  called  upon  to  use 
reading.  Children  of  a  given  class  when  reading  the  same  material  for 
the  first  time  exhibit  marked  differences  in  such  respects  as  these: 


1  Vogel,  M.,  Jaycox,  E.,  and  Washburne,  C.  W.  "A  basic  of  phonics  for 
Grades  I  and  II,"  Elementary  School  Journal,  XXIII  (Feb.,  1923),  436-43. 

"  Ducker,  Mabel  L.  "The  present  status  of  the  teaching  of  phonics  as  shown  by 
an  analysis  of  eighteen  reading  manuals,"  Unpublished.  Master's  Thesis,  Univ. 
of  Chicago,  1920. 


The  Third  Yearbook  193 


1.  Phonetic  power  or  ability  to  grapple  with  new  words. 

2.  General  word  knowledge. 

3.  Familiarity  with  the  specific  vocabulary  of  the  particular  selection. 

4.  Amount  of  vocalization  or  lip  reading. 

5.  The  number,  order,  and  length  of  eye  pauses.1 

6.  Space  between  position  of  eye  and  voice  in  reading  a  line  orally.2 

7.  Number  of  mispronunciations,  substitutions,  omissions,  and  insertions  6f 
words  in  oral  reading. 

8.  Rate  of  reading  orally  and  silently. 

9.  Ability  to  reproduce  after  a  single  reading. 

10.  Ability  to  answer  questions  of  fact  based  upon  the  selection. 

11.  Ability  to  find  specific  words,  phrases,  or  ideas. 

12.  Ability  to   see    relationships    or   contrasts   between   facts    and    ideas    set   forth 
in  the  selection. 

13.  Ability  to  adopt  a  proper  reading  attitude  or  to  look  for  the  desired   things 
on  the  printed  page.3 

14.  Ability  to  answer  questions  requiring  reflection   and  judgment 

15.  Ability  to  visualize  the  conditions  portrayed  in  selections. 

16.  Ability  to    read   "between  the   lines,"   to   link   up   with    and   interpret   what  is 
being  read  in  terms  of  past  experience. 

17.  Ability  to   resist   suggestions   or   preconceived   notions   which   tempt   the   child 
to  form  wrong  conclusions.4 

18.  Interest,  mental  activity,  and  emotional  reaction. 

19.  Ability  to  organize,  outline,  summarize  or  select  the  important  ideas. 

20.  Some  do  not  hear  or  perceive  words  in  a  normal  way.5 

A  pupil  may  exhibit  almost  any  degree  of  development  in  any  of  the 
various  abilities.  These  abilities  probably  exist  in  various  sorts  of  com- 
binations in  different  individuals.  Some  are  closely  related,  but  others  are 
not.  A  child  may  possess  superior  ability  in  some,  ordinary  skill  in  certain 
ones,  and  inferior  ability  in  others.  Unfortunately,  we  know  very  little 
as  to  the  possible  limits  of  most  of  these  abilities.  Probably  no  two  chil- 
dren in  any  class  are  alike,  or  even  approximately  so.  Probably  they  are 
no  more  alike  than  two  men  of  the  same  height,  but  of  different  races, 
might  be  said  to  be  alike.     The  importance  of  making  these  distinctions 


1  Buswell,  Guy  Thomas.  Fundamental  reading  habits:  a  study  of  their  develop- 
ment. Supplementary  Educational  Monographs.  Department  of  Education,  Univ. 
of  Chicago,  No.  21,  1922. 

"Buswell,  Guy  T.  An  experimental  study  of  the  eye-voice  span  in  reading. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs.  Department  of  Education,  Univ.  of 
Chicago,  No.  17,  1920. 

3  Judd,  Charles  H.  and  Buswell,  Guy  T.  Silent  reading:  a  study  of  various 
types.  Supplementary  Educational  Monographs.  Department  of  Education,  Univ. 
of  Chicago,  No.  23,  1922. 

4  Osburn,  W.  J.  Graded  and  diagnostic  paragraphs  for  use  in  silent  reading. 
Mimeographed  Circular  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  "Reading  as  reasoning,"  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology, 
VIII   (June,  1917),  pp.  323-32. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  "The  understanding  of  sentences,"  Elementary  School  Jour- 
nal, XVIII,   (October,  1917),  pp.  98-114. 

5  Gates,  Arthur  I.  The  psychology  of  reading  and  spelling.  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  Univ.,  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  129,  1922. 


194  Department  of  Superintendence 

with  care  in  connection  with  certain  of  the  abilities  listed  has  been  indicated 
by  Gates  and  by  Courtis.1  Remedial  instruction  will  doubtless  differ  for 
various  types  of  ability. 

The  causes  of  differences — Differences  in  reading  ability  are  the  result 
of  many  causes,  some  of  which  are  suggested  by  the  foregoing  statements 
concerning  the  nature  of  differences.  Among  the  more  obvious  causes  of 
differences  may  be  listed  (1)  the  level  of  intelligence  represented,  (2)  the 
methods  of  teaching  employed,  (3)  interest  and  mental  effort  aroused,  (4) 
habitual  reading  attitudes  formed,  (5)  amount  and  character  of  reading 
done,  (6)  background  of  experience  and  language  development,  and  (7) 
the  extent  to  which  teachers  understand  the  nature  of  individual  differences 
and  the  kind  of  treatment  needed.  To  this  list  may  be  added  defects  of 
hearing,  speech,  and  vision.  The  limitations  of  space  make  it  impossible 
to  discuss  more  than  a  few  of  these. 

Levels  of  intelligence  represented — Studies  of  the  relative  attainments  of 
classes  sectioned  according  to  ability  show  decided  differences  in  the  progress 
of  the  different  groups  in  reading.2  The  actual  correlations,  however, 
between  reading  and  intelligence  when  the  latter  has  been  measured  by  the 
Stanford-Binet  test  which  requires  less  reading  than  the  group  intelligence 
tests  was  not  particularly  high.3  When  group  intelligence  tests  were  used 
Gates  found  that  the  correlation  increased  from  the  lower  to  the  higher 
grades  suggesting  that  possibly  intelligence  in  reading  manifests  itself  most 
largely  after  the  mechanics  of  reading  have  been  fairly  well  mastered. 
Poor  readers,  however,  have  been  discovered  even  among  children  with 
intelligence  quotients  of  120  or  over.  Judd  points  out  that  there  are 
undoubtedly  pupils  of  excellent  native  ability  who  are  perverted  by  bad 
methods  of  instruction,  a  matter  which  Gates'  findings  tend  to  confirm.  It 
is  possible,  therefore,  that  we  have  attached  too  much  significance  to  the 
level  of  intelligence  attained  and  not  enough  to  other  causes  of  individual 
differences. 

Methods  of  teaching  employed — Haphazard  and  unsystematized  methods 
of  attacking  the  printed  page  form  an  important  cause  of  individual  differ- 


1  Courtis,  S.  A.  "Analysis  of  reading  ability,"  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology, 
IV,   (November,  1921),  287-91. 

Gates,  Arthur  I.  The  psychology  of  reading  and  spelling.  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  Univ.,  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  129,  1922. 

2  Dickson,  Virgil  E.  "What  first-grade  children  can  do  in  school  as  related  to 
what  is  shown  by  mental  tests,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  II  (June,  1920), 
475-80. 

Keener,  E.  E.  "The  use  of  measurements  in  a  small  city  school  system,"  Journal 
of  Educational  Research,  III    (March,  1921) 

Theisen,  W.  W.  "Does  intelligence  tell  in  first-grade  reading?"  Elementary 
School  Journal,  XXII    (March,  1922),  530-34. 

3  Gates,  Arthur  I.  The  psychology  of  reading  and  spelling.  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  Univ.,  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  129,  1922. 


The  Third  Yearbook  195 


ences.1  The  reading  accomplishments  of  most  pupils  are  the  outgrowth  of 
various  combinations  of  good,  bad,  and  indifferent  methods.  For  example, 
Gates  reports  that  some  backward  readers  whom  he  has  studied  have  had 
no  training  whatever  in  the  perception  of  words  and  that  others  have 
received  inappropriate  training.  In  at  least  one  third  of  these  backward 
readers  lack  of  training  or  inappropriate  training  is  responsible  for  a  part 
of  the  difficulty  in  reading.2  Some  pupils  fortunately  develop  good  reading 
habits  in  spite  of  the  lack  of  specific  training.  Until  quite  recently  little 
of  the  so-called  "teaching  of  reading,"  aside  from  mechanical  phrases,  has 
been  worthy  of  that  term.  Fortunately  many  teachers  are  being  trained 
to  teach  silent  reading.  The  fact  that  there  is  frequently  a  low  correlation 
between  accomplishment  records  in  different  types  of  silent  reading  probably 
indicates  lack  of  training  in  certain  types.3 

Interest  and  mental  effort  aroused — Pupils  otherwise  equal  will  develop 
differences  in  reading  ability  on  account  of  differences  in  interest  and  mental 
effort  put  forth.  Zirbes  reports  that  variations  in  the  amount  of  training 
and  practice  needed  to  correct  similar  faults  in  different  pupils  not  only 
showed  differences  in  native  ability  but  also  in  mental  inertia.  "Some  pupils 
never  knew  their  powers  because  they  had  not  been  aroused,  but  were 
allowed  to  putter  away  at  a  very  low  level  of  attention."  The  effect  of 
an  indifferent  attitude  is  emphasized  repeatedly  by  Gray.4  Judd  finds  that 
some  pupils  develop  a  mental  lethargy,  as  the  result  of  poor  methods,  which 
simulates  very  closely  native  sluggishness  of  temperament.  Zirbes  calls 
attention  to  the  fact  that  asking  pupils  to  follow  the  pace  of  a  poor  reader 
when  interest  is  urging  them  on  causes  indolence  and  works  against  the 
formation  of  good  reading  habits.5 

Habitual  reading  attitude  formed — Many  pupils  appear  to  develop  a  cer- 
tain fixed  type  of  attack  in  all  reading  activities,  regardless  of  the  purpose 
for  which  reading  is  intended  on  given  occasions.  Some  read  rapidly  and 
neglect  details.4  Others  form  the  habit  of  reading  every  detail  with  pains- 
taking care.  Uhl6  found  some  pupils  who  made  low  scores  on  account  of 
extreme  care  and  others  on  account  of  extreme  carelessness.     Zirbes  points 


1  Judd,  Charles  H.  Reading:  its  nature  and  development.  Supplementary  Edu- 
cational Monographs,  Department  of  Education,  Univ.  of  Chicago,  Vol.  2,  No.  4, 
1918. 

2  Gates,  Arthur  I.  The  -psychology  of  reading  and  spelling,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  Univ.,  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  129,  1922. 

Gates,  Arthur  I.  "A  study  of  reading  and  spelling  with  special  reference  to 
disability,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  VI    (June,   1922). 

3  Theisen,  W.  W.  An  unpublished  study  of  the  relationship  of  different  types 
of  silent  reading  ability.     Milwaukee  Public  Schools. 

4  Gray,  William  S.  Remedial  cases  in  reading:  their  diagnosis  and  treatment. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  Department  of  Education,  Univ.  of 
Chicago,  No.  22,  1922. 

5  Zirbes,  Laura.  "Diagnostic  measurement  as  a  basis  for  procedure,"  Elemen- 
tary School  Journal,  XVIII  (March,  1918)   505-22. 

0  Uhl,  W.  L.  "The  use  of  results  of  reading  tests  as  bases  for  planning  reme- 
dial work,"  Elementary  School  Journal,  XVII    (December,   1916),  266-75. 


196  Department  of  Superintendence 

out  that  a  preponderance  of  any  one  type  of  reading  practice  tends  to  lower 
the  efficiency  in  neglected  types — that  is,  if  careful  reading  is  pursued  to 
the  exclusion  of  rapid  silent  reading,  the  reader  will  lose  in  ability  to  scan 
rapidly  material  of  little  value  for  the  purpose  of  selecting  passages  which 
deserve  careful  reading.1  Judd  and  Buswell  concluded  that  reading  les- 
sons which  require  pupils  to  search  every  nook  and  corner  of  the  line  for 
rhetorical  intricacies  tend  to  destroy  the  habit  of  reading  in  a  straight- 
forward fashion.2 

Amount  and  character  of  material  read — It  is  a  matter  of  common  belief 
and  there  is  some  statistical  evidence  to  show  that  the  amount  and  charac- 
ter of  the  material  read  are  significant  factors  in  producing  individual  dif- 
ferences in  reading  accomplishment.  Zirbes'  data  show  a  correlation  of 
0.53  (Spearman)  between  home  reading  and  rate.  Facts  secured  by  Gray, 
Theisen,  and  Woody  indicate  some  correlation  between  reading  ability  and 
the  amount  read.3  Owing  to  the  fact,  however,  that  some  read  carelessly 
it  is  difficult  to  determine  the  real  effect  of  quantitative  reading.  Further- 
more, many  pupils  probably  fail  to  develop  good  reading  habits  because 
much  of  the  material  read  is  too  difficult,  poorly  written,  of  little  content 
value,  or  insufficient  in  quantity. 

Experience — Experience  is  an  additional  factor  of  unknown  magnitude 
in  producing  differences  in  children.  Lack  of  experience  is  a  handicap  and 
wide  experience  a  boon  to  good  reading.  Gray  found  that  the  failure  of 
readers  poor  in  the  mechanics  of  reading  to  establish  fundamental  habits 
of  interpretation  was  due  to  limited  experience.4  Kindergarten  and  pre- 
school experience  has  considerable  bearing  upon  early  development  in  read- 
ing. The  child  with  a  large  fund  of  experience  has  a  larger  supply  of 
associations  to  aid  him  in  comprehending  the  meaning  and  significance  of 
what  he  reads.  New  ideas  are  linked  up  with  familiar  experiences  of  the 
past.  Everyone  is  familiar  with  the  handicaps  under  which  children  com- 
ing from  homes  of  limited  advantages  suffer. 

The  treatment  of  individual  differences — The  primary  aim  should  be  to 
develop  the  reading  ability  of  every  child  to  its  maximum.  The  object 
is  not  to  level  all  differences  as  some  have  erroneously  believed.  Classroom 
teaching  should  be  so  planned  that  each  individual  will  receive  the  training 
he  needs  without  receiving  attention  which  rightfully  belongs  to  other  chil- 
dren. 


1  Zirbes,  Laura.  "Diagnostic  measurement  as  a  basis  for  procedure."  Elemen- 
tary School  Journal,  XVIII    (March,  1918),  505-22. 

2  Judd,  Charles  H.,  and  Buswell,  Guy  T.  Silent  reading  al  study  of  various 
types.  Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  Department  of  Education,  Univ. 
of  Chicago,  No.  23,  1922. 

3  Theisen,  W.  W.  "Factors  affecting  results  in  primary  reading,"  The  Twentieth 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.  Part  II.  pp.  1-24 
(relevant  sections). 

*  Gray,  William  S.  Remedial  cases  in  reading:  their  diagnosis  and  treatment. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  Department  of  Education,  Univ.  of  Chi- 
cago, No.  22,  1922. 


The  Third  Yearbook  197 

Diagnosis — The  first  step  in  treatment  is  an  adequate  diagnosis  of  the 
child's  reading  ability  and  of  his  intelligence.  Since  few  specialized  tests 
are  available,  teachers  will  need  to  depend  upon  analyses  of  the  responses 
of  pupils  to  exercises  in  standard  tests  which  call  forth  different  types  of 
ability  and  upon  informal  tests  of  their  own  making.1 

Grouping  by  ability — In  schools  of  sufficient  size  pupils  may  be  grouped 
with  profit  according  to  intelligence.2  This,  however,  will  solve  only  a 
part  of  the  difficulty.  Within  classes,  the  teacher  will  find  it  advisable 
to  group  those  needing  instruction  of  particular  types  for  as  many  lessons 
as  may  be  necessary."  During  such  periods  the  remaining  pupils  of  the 
group  may  be  assigned  reading  from  selected  library  books  or  given  indi- 
vidual  reading  problems. 


1  Anderson,  C.  J.,  and  Merton,  Elda.  "Remedial  work  in  reading."  Elementary 
School  Journal,  XX  (May  and  June,  1920  and  January,  1921).  685-701,  772-91, 
336-48. 

Gray,  C.  T.     Deficiencies  in  reading  ability,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1922. 

Gray,  William  S.  Remedial  cases  in  reading:  their  diagnosis  and  treatment. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs.  Department  of  Education,  The  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago,  No.  22,  1922. 

Gray,  William  S.  "The  diagnostic  study  of  an  individual  case  in  reading." 
Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  XXI    (April,  1921),  pp.   577-594. 

Gray,  William  S.  "Individual  difficulties  in  silent  reading  in  the  fourth,  fifth, 
and  sixth  grades,"  The  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study 
of  Education,  Part  II,  pp.  39-53. 

Geiger,  Ruth.  "A  study  in  reading  diagnosis,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research, 
VIII    (November,  1923),  pp.  285-300. 

Osburn,  W.  J.  Graded  and  diagnostic  paragraphs  for  use  in  silent  reading. 
Mimeographed  Circular  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  "The  understanding  of  sentences,"  Elementary  School  Jour- 
VIII   (June,  1917),  pp.  323-32. 

Thorndike,,  E.  L.  "The  understanding  of  sentences,"  Elementary  School  Jour- 
nal, XVIII    (October,  1917),  pp.  98-114. 

Uhl,  W.  L.  "The  use  of  results  of  reading  tests  as  bases  for  planning  reme- 
dial work,"  Elementary  School  Journal,  XVII    (December,  1916),  pp.  266-75. 

Waldman,  Bessie.  "Definite  improvement  of  reading  ability  in  a  fourth-grade 
class,"  Elementary  School  Journal,  XXI    (December,  1920),  pp.  273-80. 

Zirbes,  Laura.  "Diagnostic  measurement  as  a  basis  for  procedure,"  Elementary 
School  Journal,  XVIII   (March,  1918),  pp.  505-22. 

"Dickson,  Virgil  E.  "What  first-grade  children  can  do  in  school  as  related  to 
what  is  shown  by  mental  tests,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  II  (June,  1920), 
pp.  475-80. 

Keener,  E.  E.  "The  use  of  measurements  in  a  small  city  school  system,"  Journal 
of  Educational  Research,,  III    (March,  1921.) 

Theisen,  W.  W.  "Does  intelligence  tell  in  first-grade  reading?"  Elementary 
School  Journal,  XXII   (March,  1922),  pp.  530-34. 

3  Geiger,  Ruth.  "A  study  in  reading  diagnosis,"  Journal  of  Educational  Re- 
search, VIII    (November,  1923),  pp.  285-300. 

Zirbes,  Laura.  "Diagnostic  measurement  as  a  basis  for  procedure,"  Elementary 
School  Journal,  XVIII    (March,  1918),  pp.  505-22. 


198  Department  of  Superintendence 

Gradation  of  materials — Gradation  of  materials  to  suit  the  ability  of  the 
children  is  a  rather  common  practice.1  Zirbes  arranged  a  collection  of 
library  reading  material  suitable  for  different  ability  groups.  According 
to  the  plan  adopted  in  the  upper  grades  by  Superintendent  Kircher  when  at 
Merrill,  Wisconsin,  books  were  arranged  in  three  lots  according  to  diffi- 
culty. A  somewhat  similar  plan  is  in  use  at  Winnetka,  Illinois,  where 
every  child,  regardless  of  his  grade  in  school,  is  assigned  a  list  of  material 
appropriate  for  the  grade  to  which  his  reading  test  record  corresponds. 
When  he  completes  the  assigned  list  he  is  retested  and  given  a  new  list 
appropriate  for  the  grade  which  his  accomplishment  then  approximates. 
Such  plans  call  for  less  uniformity  and  more  variety  in  purchasing  books. 

Independent  reading — Provision  of  opportunities  for  independent  read- 
ing has  much  to  commend  it.  The  classroom  bookshelf  for  reading  when- 
ever time  permits,  supervised  home  reading,  and  individual  or  group  prob- 
lems and  projects  allow  the  child  to  read  unhampered  at  his  own  pace  and 
according  to  his  own  interests.  Some  teachers  use  a  number  of  the  regular 
reading  periods  each  week  for  independent  silent  reading  from  library 
books  and  magazines.  Stronger  pupils  may  be  asked  to  review  books  for 
others,  or  may  be  given  more  advanced  problems.  While  such  groups  are 
reading  independently  the  teacher  may  devote  his  attention  to  the  weaker 
ones.2 

Special  help — Special  help  is  always  necessary  for  some  individuals  and 
for  small  groups.  Special  drills  for  overcoming  particular  types  of  weak- 
ness should  be  given  to  those  needing  it.  Such  drills  may  be  appropriate 
for  any  of  the  specific  reading  abilities  listed  in  the  section  describing  in- 
dividual differences.  At  times,  it  is  necessary  to  aim  at  improvement  in 
some  phase  other  than  the  one  in  which  real  improvement  is  desired.3  The 
case  studied  by  Gray  emphasizes  the  fact  that  "A  pupil  may  read  slowly 
because  of  poor  or  inaccurate  habits  in  other  phases  of  reading.  In  such 
cases  the  pupil's  rate  of  reading  cannot  be  improved  until  these  related 
habits  have  been  corrected.  Therefore,  remedial  instruction  to  improve  the 
rate  of  silent  reading  may  include  exercises  in  the  mechanics  of  oral  read- 
ing and  in  the  interpretation  of  what  is  read."4  Weaknesses  common  to 
most  members  of  the  class  are  more  profitably  treated  as  class  exercises, 
excusing  only  such  pupils  as  are  clearly  not  in  need  of  a  particular 
type  of  training.     Rarely  should  class  time  be  used  for  drill  on  exercises 


1  Theisen,  W.  W.  "Provisions  for  individual  differences  in  the  teaching  of 
reading,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  II   (Sept.,  1920),  pp.  560-71. 

2  Zirbes,  Laura.  "Diagnostic  measurement  as  a  basis  for  procedure,"  Elemen- 
tary School  Journal,  XVIII    (March,  1918),  pp.  505-22. 

3  Buswell,  Guy  T.  Fundamental  reading  habits:  a  study  of  their  development. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  Department  of  Education,  Univ.  of  Chi- 
cago, No.  21,  1922. 

4  Gray,  William  S.  Remedial  cases  in  reading:  their  diagnosis  and  treatment. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  Department  of  Education, .  Univ.  of  Chi- 
cago, No.  22,  1922. 


The  Third  Yearbook  199 


needed  only  by  a  very  few.  Suggestions  for  dealing  with  many  specific 
types  of  individual  difficulties  are  to  be  found  in  the  reports  of  individual 
case  studies.1 

Exercises  to  stimulate  independent  thinking — One  of  the  most  readily 
administered  provisions  for  individual  differences  is  the  liberal  use  of 
assignments  and  class  exercises  which  stimulate  independent  thinking  and 
research.  Questions  of  the  problem  type  which  offer  possibilities  for  inde- 
pendent investigation  and  study  are  especially  suitable  for  this  purpose. 
Such  exercises  permit  the  brighter  pupils  to  utilize  their  ability  to  weigh 
values,  to  read  between  the  lines,  to  see  relationships  and  contrasts,  to  skim 
and  to  select  the  larger  units  of  organization.2  Pupils  who  need  training 
in  specific  types  of  interpretation  may  be  assigned  problems  which  require 
them  to  exercise  the  particular  type  of  interpretative  ability  that  is  lacking.3 
Thus,  pupils  weak  in  ability  to  organize  may  be  given  problems  requiring 
organization. 

Development  of  individual  interests — Individual  needs  may  be  cared  for 
to  some  degree  by  properly  developing  and  capitalizing  each  child's  particu- 
lar interest.  Gray  points  out  in  connection  with  his  recommendations  for 
remedial  treatment  of  poor  readers  that  "keen  interest  must  be  aroused 
in  reading  through  the  use  of  material  directly  related  to  the  pupil's  inter- 
ests."3 The  teacher's  most  difficult  problem  is  to  find  where  each  pupil's 
interests  lie  and  how  to  utilize  them.     Principal  Rohan's  development  of 


1  Anderson,  C.  J.,  and  Merton,  Elda.  "Remedial  work  in  reading,"  Elementary 
School  Journal,  XX  (May  and  June,  1920  and  Jan.  1921),  pp.  685-701,  772-91, 
336-48. 

Gray,  C.  T.     Deficiencies  in  reading  ability.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1922. 

Gray,  William  S.  Remedial  cases  in  reading:  their  diagnosis  and  treatment. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  Department  of  Education,  Univ.  of  Chi- 
cago, No.  22,  1922. 

Gray,  William  S.  "The  diagnostic  study  of  an  individual  case  in  reading," 
Elementary  School  Journal,  XXI    (April,  1921),  pp.  577-94. 

Gray,  William  S.  "Individual  difficulties  in  silent  reading  in  the  fourth,  fifth, 
and  sixth  grades,  "The  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study 
of  Education,  Part  II,  pp.  39-53. 

Geiger,  Ruth.  "A  study  in  reading  diagnosis,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research, 
VIII    (Nov.,  1923),  pp.  285-300. 

Uhl,  W.  L.  "The  use  of  results  of  reading  tests  as  bases  for  planning  reme- 
dial work,"  Elementary  School  Journal,  XVII   (Dec,  1916),  pp.  266-75. 

Waldman,  Bessie.  "Definite  improvement  of  reading  ability  in  a  fourth-grade 
class,"  Elementary  School  Journal,  XXI    (Dec,   1920),  pp.  273-80. 

Zirbes,  Laura.  "Diagnostic  measurement  as  a  basis  for  procedure,"  Elementary 
School  Journal,  XVIII    (March,   1918),  pp.  505-22. 

2  Geiger,  Ruth.  "A  study  in  reading  diagnosis,"  Journal  of  Educational  Re- 
search, VIII    (Nov.,  1923),  pp.  285-300. 

3  Gray,  William  S.  Remedial  cases  in  reading:  their  diagnosis  and  treatment. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  Department  of  Education,  Univ.  of  Chi- 
cago, No.  22,  1922. 


200  Department  of  Superintendence 

reading  interests  around  club  activities  is  suggestive  of  a  method  of  ap- 
proach.1 When  once  the  pupil's  interest  has  been  aroused  in  the  necessary 
reading  material,  he  frequently  develops  rapidly  without  much  assistance 
from  the  teacher. 

XI.  Diagnosis  and  Remedial  Work 

The  major  implication  of  diagnostic  and  remedial  work  for  curriculum 
workers  lies  in  the  study  of  the  causes  of  difficulty.  These  show  how  chil- 
dren are  diverted  from  normal  lines  of  reading  development  and  how  cer- 
tain specific  types  of  work  correct  wrong  tendencies.  The  presence  of  a 
large  number  of  remedial  cases  in  a  school  or  school  system  is  indicative  of 
a  lack  or  a  wrong  emphasis  in  the  curriculum.  Reduction  of  the  number 
of  deficient  readers  and  the  growth  in  the  reading  abilities  of  deficient  read- 
ers are  most  noticeable  when  causes  of  deficiency  are  investigated  and 
brought  under  control.  Deficiencies  of  long  standing  are  harder  to  remedy 
than  incipient  defects.  Thus  prompt  provision  for  individual  needs  is 
essential. 

Diagnostic  analysis  and  remedial  practice  have  not  yet  been  validated  by 
application  to  a  sufficient  number  of  cases.  To  facilitate  such  analysis  and 
application  and  to  assist  the  teacher  in  work  with  problem  cases  a  chart2 
has  been  prepared  from  an  analysis  of  outstanding  studies.3     The  chart, 


1  Rugg,  Harold.  "The  curriculum  for  gifted  children,"  The  Twenty-third  Year- 
book of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Pt.  I,  pp.  105-108. 

2  Zirbes,  Laura.  "Diagnosis  and  remedial  work,"  Chapter  X.  The  Ttventy-fourth 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.  Bloomington: 
Public  School  Pub.  Co.,  1925. 

"Anderson,  C.  J.,  and  Merton,  E.  "Remedial  work  in  reading,"  Elementary 
School  Journal,  XX  (May  and  June,  1920),  685-701,  772-791;  XXI  (Jan.,  1921), 
336-351. 

Fernald,  Grace  M.,  and  Keller,  Helen.  "The  effect  of  kinaesthetic  factors  in 
the  development  of  word  recognition  in  the  case  of  non-readers."  Journal  of 
Educational  Research,  V   (Dec,  1921),  355-77. 

Gates,  A.  I.  The  psychology  of  reading  and  spelling  with  special  reference  to 
disability.  Teachers  College  Contributions,  Columbia  University,  No.  129.  New 
York:  Teachers  College  Bureau  of  Publications,  1922. 

Gray,  C.  T.  Deficiencies  in  reading  ability.  New  York:  D.  C.  Heath  and  Co., 
1923.     XIV,  420. 

Gray,  W.  S.  "Diagnostic  and  remedial  steps  in  reading,"  Journal  of  Educa- 
tional Research,  IV    (June,   1921),   1-15. 

Gray,  W.  S.,  with  the  cooperation  of  Kibbe,  Delia;  Lucas,  Laura;  and  Midler, 
L.  W.  Remedial  cases  in  reading:  their  diagnosis  and  treatment.  Supplementary 
Educational  Monographs,  No.  22.  Chicago:  Department  of  Education,  Univ.  of 
Chicago,  VII,  208. 

Hollingworth,  L.  S.  Special  talents  and  defects:  their  significance  for  education. 
New  York:  Macmillan,  1923. 

Lloyd,  S.  M.,  and  Gray,  C.  T.  "Reading  in  a  Texas  city:  diagnosis  and  remedy." 
Univ.  of  Texas  Bulletin,  No.  1853  (Sept.  20,  1918).  VII,  107.  Austin:  Univ.  of 
Texas.  • 

Merton,  E.     "The  discovery  and  correction  of   reading  difficulties,"  pp.   346-363. 


The  Third  Yearbook  201 


which  is  too  detailed  to  include  in  this  report  contains  lists  of  deficiencies, 
probable  causes,  and  appropriate  remedial  measures,  is  accompanied  by  the 
recommendations  that : 

1.  Remedial  work  be  preceded  by  a  thoroughgoing  inquiry  into  the  nature  and 
causes  of  the  deficiency. 

2.  Remedial  work  be  planned  with  specific  reference  to  individual  needs  and 
causes  of  deficiency. 

3.  Records  of  growth  be  kept. 

4.  The  teacher  function  as  a  guide  and  observer  in  the  primary  grades,  study- 
ing pupil  reactions  and  making  prompt  adjustments  to  individual  needs  before 
chronic  deficiency  and  discouragement  result. 

5.  The  presence  of  any  single  deficiency  in  a  large  number  of  pupils  be  investi- 
gated with  the  purpose  of  discovering  a  general  cause  requiring  curricular  ad- 
justment. 

XII.  Time  Allotment  for  Reading 

Time  allotment — The  amount  of  time  which  should  be  given  to  reading 
has  been  and  still  is  an  important  issue.  One  of  the  most  important  of 
the  earlier  studies  was  made  by  Holmes1  who  obtained  information  from 
fifty  American  cities.  His  data  showed  that  an  average  of  53  minutes  was 
given  to  reading  each  day  in  the  first  grade  and  that  the  total  amount  of 
time  decreased  gradually  from  the  first  to  the  eighth  grade  inclusive.  The 
important  facts  revealed  in  some  of  the  more  recent  studies  will  be  sum- 
marized briefly. 

In  Indianapolis  and  other  cities — In  the  reading  survey  of  Indianapolis, 
Gray2  presented  the  average  time  allotment  for  fifty  cities  as  determined  by 
Holmes,  the  time  allotment  for  Cleveland  in  1915,  and  the  time  allotment 
for  Indianapolis  in  1917.  The  numbers  of  hours  given  to  reading  in 
these  cities  are  shown  in  Table  20.    The  entries  in  the  table  show  that  In- 


The  Second  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Elementary  School  Principals.  Wash., 
D.  C.     The  Department  of  Elementary  School  Principals  of  the  N.  E.  A. 

Osburn,  W.  J.  "Graded  and  diagnostic  paragraphs  for  use  in  silent  reading." 
Mimeographed  Bull.,  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  Madison,  Wisconsin, 
1922. 

Theisen,  W.  W.  "Factors  affecting  results  in  primary  reading,"  1-25.  The 
Tiventieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  2. 
Bloomington;  Public  School  Pub.  Co.,   1921. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  "Reading  as  reasoning:  a  study  of  mistakes  in  paragraph 
reading,"  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  VIII   (June  1917),  pp.  323-332. 

Woolley,  Helen  T,  and  Ferris,  E.  "Diagnosis  and  treatment  of  young  school 
failures."  Bull.,  No.  1,  1923.  Wash.,  D.  C:  Government  Printing  Office,  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  Bureau  of  Education. 

Zirbes,  Laura.  "Diagnostic  measurement  as  a  basis  for  procedure  in  reading," 
Elementary  School  Journal,  XVIII    (March,   1918),  pp.   505-22. 

1  Holmes,  H.  E.  "Time  distribution  by  subjects  and  grades  in  representative 
cities,"  Fourteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education, 
Part  I,  1915,  pp.  21-27. 

2  Gray,  William  S.  "Reading  in  the  schools  of  Indianapolis,"  Elementary  School 
Journal,  XIX   (January,  1919),  p.  347. 


202  Department  of  Superintendence 

dianapolis  gave  a  relatively  small  amount  of  time  to  reading.  The  results 
of  the  standardized  tests  which  were  given  showed  that  the  pupils  ranked 
low  in  reading  accomplishment.  We  may  reasonably  conclude  in  view  of 
these  facts  that  Indianapolis  was  not  giving  sufficient  time  to  reading  to 
obtain  satisfactory  results.  A  second  explanation  is  that  the  time  was  not 
used  most  effectively.  It  is  possible  that  both  factors  were  operative  in 
this  case. 

In  forty-nine  large  cities — Ayer1  reported  in  1924  the  results  of  a  com- 
parative study  of  the  time  allotment  for  reading  in  Seattle  and  49  large 
cities.  A  tabular  summary  of  his  data  appears  in  Table  21  in  terms  of  the 
number  of  minutes  given  to  reading  per  week.  These  findings  show  clearly 
that  large  cities  are  now  giving  more  time  to  reading  in  most  grades  than 
was  shown  in  earlier  studies,  such  as  Holmes'.  Ayer's  study  revealed  also 
that  many  large  cities  are  at  present  modifying  their  courses  of  study  and 
time  allotments.  There  is  also  a  tendency  in  many  cities  "to  give  less 
attention  to  arbitrary  daily  time  allotments  in  the  primary  grades,  where  the 
work  goes  by  projects  rather  than  by  subjects." 

Table  20. — Number  of  Hours  Given  to  Reading  Per  Year  by  Grades 


City 

Grades 

Total 

Average  for  fifty  cities. 
Cleveland  

i 

266 
317 
165 

2 

235 
317 
105 

3 

188 
279 
120 

4 

153 

196 

75 

5 
126 
161 

60 

6 
117 
136 

60 

7 

98 

162 

36 

8 

97 

152 

36 

1280 

1710 

657 

Table  21. — Number  of  Minutes  Given  to  Reading  Each  Week 

I  II  III  IV  V  VI  VII        VIII  Total 

Average  for 

49    cities 421         404         332         245         182         141  142         136         2003 

600         525         425         310         135         135         225         212         2567 

hi  thirty-one  first-class  schools  of  North  Dakota — Kirk2  made  a  study 
of  the  actual  program  followed  in  thirty-one  school  systems  and  determined 
the  number  of  minutes  per  week  spent  in  recitation.  A  summary  of  his 
findings  appear  in  Table  22.  The  entries  in  the  table  show  that  the 
schools  of  North  Dakota  are  not  giving  on  the  average  as  much  time  to 
reading  as  is  done  in  forty-nine  cities.  They  are  giving  more  time,  however, 
than  large  cities  devoted  to  reading  several  years  ago  when  Holmes  made 
his  investigation. 


1  Ayer,  Fred  C.  "Average  time  allotments  in  49  large  cities  compared  with 
Seattle,"  Second  Yearbook,  Department  of  Superintendence,  1924,  Nat'l  Educ. 
Assn.,  Wash.,  D.  C.    p.  140. 

2  Kirk,  H.  H.  "Time  distribution  by  subject  and  grade,"  Elementary  School 
Journal,  XVIII   (March,  1923),  pp.  535-41. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


203 


In  rural  schools — Reinoehl1  made  an  analysis  of  the  daily  time  schedules 
recommended  in  twenty-six  model  programs  for  one  year  rural  schools  as 
published  in  state  courses  of  study.  Information  was  recorded  concerning 
the  number  of  daily  recitation  periods  and  the  total  number  of  minutes  per 
week  given  to  reading  in  each  grade.  His  findings  appear  in  Table  22  and 
reveal  a  surprisingly  small  amount  of  time  given  to  reading  in  comparison 


Table  22. — Average  Amount  of  Time  Devoted  to  Reading 

Grades                                                  I  II  III  IV  V  VI 

Average  number  of  minutes  per  week 325  250  250  125  125  125 

Minimum  number  of  minutes  per  week 225  125         75  100  75  75 

Maximum  number  of  minutes  per  week 650  450  400  225  275  200 

with  the  time  allotment  in  large  cities.  This  fact  doubtless  explains  in 
part  the  relatively  poor  reading  accomplishment  of  rural  pupils  described 
in  recent  surveys. 

Distribution  of  time  between  oral  and  silent  reading— -Two  studies  of 
time  distribution  between  oral  and  silent  reading  will  be  referred  to  in 
this  report.  The  first  was  made  in  1917  by  Gray2  who  obtained  informa- 
tion from  teachers  concerning  the  percentages  of  time  set  aside  for  read- 
ing that  were  given  to  oral  and  to  silent  reading.  His  findings  appear  in 
Table  23.  The  entires  in  the  table  show  the  number  of  teachers  reporting 
given  percentages  of  time  devoted  to  (o)  oral  reading  and  to  (s)  silent 
reading. 

TABLE  23.— NUMBER  OF  TEACHERS  REPORTING  DIFFERENT  PERCENT- 
AGES OF  READING  TIME  GIVEN  TO  ORAL-READING  AND  TO  SILENT- 
READING   INSTRUCTION   IN    702    CLASSROOMS    OF   INDIANAPOLIS 


Grades 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

vin 

Per  cent  of  time 

O 

S 

O 

S 

O 

S 

O 

S 

O 

S 

O 

S 

O 

S 

0 

S 

0 

7 
15 
12 
27 
15 
11 

1 

1 

1 

l6' 

"2 

5 

11 

27 
14 
15 
19 
6 
1 

1 
6 
15 
19 
20 
22 
9 
-8 

'  '4 

3 

22 

33 

12 

14 

9 

2 

1 

1 

4 

4 

14 

26 

27 

7 

9 

4 

1 

2 

8 

12 

10 

35 

14 

5 

3 

8 

"3 

"e>' 

15 

17 

25 

11 

8 

15 

2 

1 

5 

3 

11 

11 

20 

27 

10 

6 

7 

4 
6 

'  '4' 
12 

30 
11 
12 
12 
4 
5 

4 

7 

14 

10 

22 

26 

2 

4 

5 

2 

2 

2 

2 

14 

6 

15 

16 

18 

8 

2 

13 

2 

4 

8 

1-  10 

2 
4 
5 

25 
27 
22 
4 
11 

'  6' 
13 
27 
25 
14 
10 
4 

5 

9 

8 

11 

15 

34 

2 

12 

3 

1 

4 

11-  20 

2 

3 

7 

11 

1 

16 

40 

15 

5 

9 

21-  30 

9 

31-  40 

9 

41-  50 

?,?, 

51-  60 

0 

61-  70 

8 

71-  80 

15 

81-  90.  . 

6 

91-100. .  . 

3. 

1 

S 

The  entries  in  Table  23  reveal  wide  variations  in  practice  in  each  grade. 
A  large  majority  of  the  teachers  stated  that  they  gave  most  of  their  time 
to  oral  reading  in  the  first  grade  and  very  little  of  it  to  silent  reading.    In 


1  Reinoehl,  C.  M.     Analytical  survey  of  state  courses  of  study  for  rural  elemen- 
tary schools,  Bureau  of  Education,  Bull.  No.  42,  1922,  pp.  23-24. 

2  Gray,  William  S.     "Reading  in  the  schools  of  Indianapolis,"  Elementary  School 
Journal,  XIX   (Jan.,  1919),  348. 


204  Department  of  Superintendence 

the  grades  above  the  first  a  distinct  tendency  is  shown  toward  an  equal 
distribution  of  time  which  becomes  most  pronounced  in  the  fourth  grade. 
The  greatest  diversity  of  practice  is  revealed  in  the  grades  above  the  fourth. 
In  interpreting  Table  23  two  facts  should  be  kept  in  mind:  (a)  The  data 
were  secured  in  1917  before  schoolroom  practice  had  been  greatly  influ- 
enced by  the  recent  emphasis  on  silent  reading;  and  (b)  The  records  are 
based  on  teachers'  statements  of  their  practice  and  not  on  records  of  the 
actual  distribution  of  time. 

A  recent  study  is  reported  by  McGaughey1  of  the  practice  in  305  cities. 
His  findings  show  that  both  oral  and  silent  reading  are  taught  in  most 
grades  from  the  first  to  the  eighth  inclusive.  This  practice  is  somewhat 
more  universal  in  the  case  of  oral  than,  of  silent  reading. 

Concluding  statement — Although  definite  conclusions  concerning  time  al- 
lotment for  reading  cannot  be  drawn  from  the  studies  to  which  reference 
has  been  made,  nevertheless,  the  results  of  these  investigations  are  suggestive. 
Quoting  from  Kirk:  "In  the  absence  of  all  absolute  knowledge  the  practice 
of  the  majority  would  seem  to  be  a  more  satisfactory  standard  than  no 
standard  at  all.  A  standard  that  is  derived  from  statistics  is  better  than 
one  that  is  not  derived  at  all.  .  .  .  There  ought  to  be,  within  certain 
limits,  a  time  allotment  for  each  subject  that  would  give  the  most  satis- 
factory results,  and  it  should  be  at  the  point  where  the  law  of  diminishing 
returns  operates  most  severely." 

It  is  hoped  that  within  the  near  future  standards  may  be  derived  which 
will  be  applicable  to  various  types  of  schools  and  to  classrooms  which  follow 
different  procedures  in  teaching  pupils  to  read. 


1  McGaughey,   J.  R.      "Distribution   of  grades   in   which   elementary   school    sub- 
jects are  taught,"  Second  Yearbook,  Department  of  Superintendence,  p.  146. 


CHAPTER  VI 

HANDWRITING 

Frank  N.  Freeman,  School  of  Education,  University  of  Chicago, 
Chicago,   Illinois,   Chairman 

THE  SUMMARY  of  the  studies  on  the  curriculum  in  handwriting 
may  be  prefaced  by  a  brief  survey  of  the  kinds  of  facts  which  are 
pertinent  to  the  determination  of  curriculum  standards  in  hand- 
writing. This  will  furnish  a  background  upon  which  to  project  the  studies 
in  question  and  thus  determine  how  far  they  have  covered  the  field. 

There  are  at  least  three  classes  of  facts  which  have  important  bearing 
upon  the  problem.    They  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  degree  of  skill  which  children  are  able  to  attain  at  a  certain  point 
in  their  schooling  with  a  reasonable  amount  of  training. 

The  curriculum  standards  are  sometimes  expressed  wholly  in  terms  of 
an  external  demand.  This  taken  alone  is  never  sufficient.  A  decision  must 
tie  based  upon  considerations  which  are  analogous  to  those  determining  one's 
actions  in  case  of  a  proposed  purchase.  Action  is  determined  by  both  value 
and  purchase  price  or  cost.  If  it  is  of  little  value,  even  a  low  cost  will  not 
justify  its  purchase.  If  it  is  of  great  value,  it  will  justify  a  correspondingly 
high  price.  The  attainments  which  children  make  under  various  amounts 
and  kinds  of  training,  therefore,  must  constitute  one  of  the  legs  which  sup- 
port the  curriculum  structure. 

2.  A  second  pertinent  fact  is  the  quality  of  writing  which  prevails  among 
persons  who  employ  handwriting  for  various  purposes. 

The  argument  supporting  the  validity  of  this  type  of  evidence  is  that  if 
large  groups  of  persons  actually  get  by  with  a  certain  quality  or  speed  of 
writing,  that  this  writing  is  sufficient  for  their  purposes.  This  argument 
has  some  weight,  though  it  is  of  course  possible  that  all  the  persons  in  ques- 
tion are  writing  at  a  lower  quality  than  would  be  profitable  to  them.  The 
argument  is  perhaps  somewhat  stronger  when  it  is  applied  to  the  relative 
attainments  of  different  groups  of  persons.  If  we  find  that  one  vocational 
group,  for  example,  writes  better  than  another  group,  this  fact  is  some 
indication  that  one  vocation  makes  a  higher  demand  than  does  the  other. 

3.  The  third  pertinent  factor  is  a  demand  expressed  more  directly  in 
terms  of  specific  requirements  set  up  by  certain  vocations,  or  in  terms  of  the 
opinion  of  persons  responsible  for  the  employment  of  individuals. 

The  committee  has  not  been  able  to  discover  specific  demands  in  which 
minimum  essentials  in  handwriting  for  entrance  to  particular  occupations 
are  set  up.  It  has  been  able,  however,  to  gather  together  a  considerable 
body  of  opinion  of  employing  officials  concerning  the  necessity  of  different 
grades  of  handwriting  for  employees. 

The  individual  studies  will  first  be  reported  separately  and  will  then  be 
summarized  in  the  concluding  section. 

T205] 


206 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Studies  Which  Are  Chiefly  Quantitative 

STUDY  NO.  I.  Freeman,  Frank  N.  "Handwriting."  Fourteenth 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.  Chicago, 
Univ.  of  Chicago  Press,    pp.  61-67. 

Problem.  The  problem  of  this  report  was  two-fold.  In  the  first  place 
it  undertook  to  estimate  the  capacity  of  children  to  develop  various  degrees 
of  skill  in  handwriting  under  the  conditions  of  public  school  instruction. 
In  the  second  place,  the  problem  was  to  secure  evidence  concerning  the 
demand  which  is  made  upon  the  employees  of  various  types  of  business  in 
respect  to  handwriting. 

Method.  The  method  which  was  used  in  determining  the  ability  of  chil- 
dren to  learn  to  write  was  an  analysis  of  the  results  of  widespread  surveys 
by  means  of  tests  of  handwriting.  A  comparison  was  made  of  the  attain- 
ments of  children  in  a  large  number  of  schools  and  the  relationship  between 
the  time  spent  in  handwriting  and  the  attainments  of  pupils  was  studied. 
In  attacking  the  second  problem  a  questionnaire  was  sent  to  fourteen  busi- 
ness firms  relative  to  the  kind  of  work  demanded  of  their  employees,  the 
importance  of  writing,  and  the  quality  and  speed  of  writing  which  they  con- 
sidered necessary. 

Summary  of  Findings.  The  first  findings  of  the  report  consist  of  the 
scores  of  about  thirty-four  thousand  children  in  fifty-six  cities  in  speed  and 
quality  of  handwriting.  In  addition  to  the  median  in  speed  and  quality 
for  grades  two  to  eight,  the  median  of  the  schools  which  represents  the  upper 
half  and  lower  half  of  the  entire  group,  respectively,  is  given.  These  median 
scores  are  shown  in  Table  24. 


TABLE  24.— AVERAGE  SPEED  AND  QUALITY  OF  HANDWRITING  AND 
AVERAGE  OF  UPPER  AND  LOWER  HALVES  IN  ALL  THE  SCHOOLS 
INVESTIGATED 


School  grade 

II 

HI 

IV 

V 

VI 

vn 

vm 

[Average  of  upper  half.  . 

35.4 
30.6 

24.4 
43.5 
39.7 
36.8 

47.7 
43.8 
37.4 
46.1 
42.0 
38.8 

56.2 
51.2 
43.4 
49.3 
45.8 
43.2 

64.9 
59.1 
49.9 
54.5 
50.5 
47.4 

69.2 
62.8 
52.8 
58.5 
54.5 
51.5 

73.4 

67.9 
58.5 
64.7 
58.9 
54.2 

77.8 
73.0 

[Average  of  lower  half.. . 
[Average  of  upper  half.  . 

61.2 
67.8 
62.8 

[Average  of  lower  half..  . 

57.6 

It  should  be  noted  that  in  order  to  be  in  the  upper  half  a  school  must 
be  superior  in  a  combination  of  rate  and  quality  and  not  in  rate  or  quality 
alone. 

The  question  was  now  raised  whether  the  median  of  the  upper  half  of 
the  schools  might  legitimately  be  taken  as  a  standard  of  achievement.  This 
would  depend  upon  the  causes  of  superiority.  Among  the  possible  causes 
considered  were  superior  native  ability  of  children,  superior  ability  or  train- 
ing of  teachers,  a  superior  method  of  supervision  or  of  instruction,  and  a 


The  Third  Yearbook  207 


greater  amount  of  time  spent  in  drill.  The  first  of  these  explanations  was 
ruled  out  as  being  improbable.  The  last  was  investigated  by  comparing 
the  amount  of  time  spent  by  the  twenty-three  cities  of  the  upper  half  and 
the  twenty-three  cities  of  the  lower  half.  The  average  number  of  minutes 
per  week  spent  by  the  cities  in  the  upper  half  was  73.4,  and  by  those  in  the 
lower  half  73.3.  The  explanation,  therefore,  must  lie  in  the  ability  and 
training  of  teachers,  or  in  the  methods  of  instruction.  It  seemed  to  the 
author  legitimate  to  adopt  as  a  standard  one  which  could  be  obtained  by 
superior  methods  of  instruction,  not  in  the  exceptional  school  but  in  a  large 
number  of  schools  scattered  all  over  the  country. 

A  special  situation  was  found  with  reference  to  speed.  While  the  quality 
advanced  uniformly  throughout  the  grades,  speed  showed  a  slower  advance 
in  the  grades  above  the  fifth.  By  comparing  the  speed  curve  with  Gilbert's 
curve  in  rate  of  tapping,  it  was  found  that  the  break  came  at  a  correspond- 
ing point.  The  diminished  gain,  therefore,  rests  upon  a  natural  founda- 
tion in  the  child's  slackened  development.  It  was  found  that  certain  schools, 
seven  in  particular,  were  able  to  overcome  this  tendency  to  a  slower  de- 
velopment and  to  maintain  a  uniform  growth  in  speed.  It  was  held  to  be 
desirable  to  maintain  this  uniform  growth  even  at  the  expense  of  slightly 
greater  emphasis  upon  speed  in  the  upper  grades. 

From  these  considerations  tentative  norms  or  standards  were  proposed 
as  shown  in  Table  25. 

Table  25. — Proposed  Standard  for  Quality  and  Speed 


Quality 
Speed  . 


School 

G 

rade 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

44 
36 

47 
48 

50 
56 

55 
65 

59 

72 

64 
80 

70 
90 

The  results  of  the  questionnaires  to  business  firms  are  shown  in  Table  26. 
Out  of  twenty-nine  cases  in  which  a  quality  is  mentioned,  fifteen  are  of 
quality  60,  and  seven  of  quality,  70.  The  others  scattered  from  30  to  90. 
It  is  to  be  presumed  that  these  are  occupations  in  which  handwriting  is  most 
important.  The  prevailing  opinion,  then,  appears  to  be  that  60  is  sufficiently 
good  with  half  as  many  considering  70  as  necessary. 

Supplementary  data  upon  the  attainment  of  pupils.  In  order  to 
determine  whether  the  average  attainments  which  are  given  in  Table  26 
are  representative  of  school  children  in  general,  a  number  of  other  investi- 
gations have  been  consulted  and  their  results  brought  together  in  Table  27. 

Table  27  indicates  that  there  is  considerable  variation  in  the  achievement 
found  in  the  various  investigations.  In  quality,  for  example,  the  average 
attainment  at  the  sixth  grade  varies  from  47  to  58.2. 


208 


Department  of  Superintendence 


TABLE  26.— QUALITY  OF  HANDWRITING  REGARDED  AS  ESSENTIAL  BY 
VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  BUSINESS  FIRMS 


Kind  of  firm 

Kind  of  work 

Number 

em- 
ployed 

Quality  of  writing 
regarded  as  essential 

Is  speed 

Vertical 

Medium 
slant 

Extreme 
slant 

tant? 

Correspondence  school. . . . 

Department  store 

Mail-order  house 

Correspondence  school.  .  .  . 

Clerical 

Clerical  and  accounting. 
Stenography  and  book- 
keeping. 
Entry  and  bookkeeping. 

File  clerk 

15 

19 

500 

30 

400 

70 
60 

60 

60 

60 

70 

70 
30 

90 
70 
60 

90  or 

better 
60 

60 

60 
60 

50 

70 

Yes 
Yes 
Yes 

Yes 

ately 
Yes 

sale. 

Clerical • 

90 

82 

200 

75 

50 

38 

53 

100 

Yes 

road  department. 

60 
80 

60 
70 

Yes 

Mail-order  house 

Addressing 

Addressing 

Clerical 

'Distribution" 

Yes 
Yes 

Department    store    claim 
department. 

40 

40 

70 
60 
60 

No. 
Yes 

Yes 

60 

60 

ately 

Total 

1,702 

Table  27. — Comparative  Scores  in  Quality  and  Speed 
Obtained  in  Seven  Investigations 


Quality  on  Ayres  Scale 

Investigator  School  Grade 
or 

Source  of   Data                             II        III  IV  V         VI 

D.  Starch     (1915) 27  33  37  43  47 

E.  J.    Ashbaugh    (1916) 28.5  35.7  39.8  44.5  49.1 

L.  P.  Ayres 38  42  46  50  54 

F.  N.   Freeman    (1915) 39.7  42.0  45.8  50.5  54.5 

Cleveland  Survey   (1916)  ... ,  ...  45  48 

Grand    Rapids    Survey    (1916).....  29.4  34.5  44.4  51.7  58.2 

St.   Louis    Survey    (1917) 29.9  31.7  36.8  52.1  57.3 

Freeman's  average  of   upper  half 

of    schools     (1915) 43.5  46.1  49.3  54.5  58.9 


Speed 
Investigator 
or 

Source  of  Data  II 

D.  Starch    31 

E.  J.  Ashbaugh    39.2 

L.  P.  Ayres   32 

F.  N.    Freeman 30.6 

Cleveland    Survey     (1916) . 

Grand    Rapids    Survey     (1916) 33r5 

St.   Louis    Survey    (1917) 36.7" 

Freeman's  average  of   upper  half 

of   schools    (1915)     35.4 


School  Grade 


VII 

VIII 

53 

57 

52.3 

61 

58 

62 

58.9 

62.8 

50 

55 

61.4 

68.4 

62.8 

74.2 

64.7      67.8 


III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

38 

47 

57 

65 

75 

83 

49.6 

61.9 

65.5 

72.6 

75 

76.5 

44 

56 

64 

70 

76 

80 

43.8 

51.2 

59.1 

62.8 

67.9 

73.0 

60 

70 

76 

80 

50.1 

59.3 

64.9 

73.0 

77.9 

84.3 

56.8 

64.0 

65.6 

69.3 

74.7 

72.8 

47.7      56.2      64.9      69.2      73.4      77.8 


The  Third  Yearbook  209 


In  speed  the  average  varies  from  62.8  to  73.  A  similar  variation  may  be 
found  in  the  scores  of  the  eighth  grade.  It  is  apparent  that  the  average 
scores  obtained  in  some  cities  is  considerably  higher  than  that  obtained  in 
others.  Surveys  have  repeatedly  shown  also  that  the  attainment  of  pupils 
in  different  schools  varies  widely.  The  attainments  of  the  children  in 
Grand  Rapids  and  St.  Louis  and  the  attainments  of  the  upper  half  of  the 
schools  in  Freeman's  survey  agree  rather  closely.  The  average  attainment 
found  in  the  other  investigations  in  speed  does  not  depart  from  these  aver- 
ages.    In  quality,  however,  they  fall  considerably  lower. 

STUDY  NO.  2.  L.  V.  Koos.  "The  determination  of  ultimate  standards 
of  quality  in  handwriting  for  the  public  schools."  Elementary  School  Jour- 
nal, February,  Vol.  18,  pp.  423-446. 

Problem.  To  determine  on  a  basis  of  objective  measurement  the  demand 
for  handwriting,  first  in  social  correspondence,  and  second,  in  a  series  of 
vocations. 

Method.  The  method  of  determining  the  quality  of  handwriting  needed 
for  social  correspondence  was  twofold.  First,  1053  specimens  of  actual 
social  correspondence  were  collected  and  scored.  Second,  the  judgment  of 
826  adults  as  to  what  they  consider  adequate  handwriting  for  social  corre- 
spondence were  collected  and  tabulated.  These  adults  comprised  three 
groups:  students  in  education,  educational  workers — mostly  teachers  and 
non-teachers.  The  quality  of  handwriting  necessary  for  a  vocation  was 
determined  by  measuring  or  scoring  the  quality  of  the  writing  of  1127 
employees  in  a  variety  of  occupations. 

Findings.  The  findings  of  the  first  part  of  the  study,  which  deals  with 
the  requirements  of  social  correspondence,  are  presented.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  these  findings  are  based  upon  two  sources  of  information. 
First,  the  scoring  of  actual  specimens  of  writing,  and  second,  a  tabulation 
of  judgments.  The  general  fact  found  in  the  scoring  of  the  specimens  is 
that  "only  142,  or  13.5  per  cent  of  the  total  of  1053  correspondents,  write 
better  than  60  on  the  scale,  the  remaining  86.5  per  cent  write  at  the  quality 
60  or  less.  The  average  quality  of  the  1053  specimens  is  49.5."  To  put 
the  matter  in  another  way,  86.5  per  cent  of  these  individuals  write  at  a 
quality  of  60  or  less  on  the  Ayres  Scale.  If  the  average  is  to  be  taken  as  a 
standard,  50  must  be  regarded  as  the  requirement.  If  the  point  which  a 
very  large  majority  attain  is  the  standard,  60  should  be  taken  as  the 
standard. 

The  judgments  concerning  what  degree  of  excellence  is  adequate  for 
social  correspondence  were  obtained  by  supplying  the  parts  of  the  Ayres 
Scale  separately  to  826  adults  and  asking  them  to  sort  the  samples  into  two 
groups  to  be  designated  respectively  as  adequate  and  inadequate.  These 
judges  were  composed  of  three  classes:  first,  176  members  of  classes  of  edu- 
cation in  the  University  of  Washington;  second,  414  teachers  in  Washing- 
ton and  Ohio;  and  third,  236  other  adults,  non-teachers.  As  between 
these  three  groups,  the  teachers,  in  general,  had  a  lower  standard  than  did 


210  Department  of  Superintendence 

the  non-teachers.  The  non-teachers  would,  in  general,  insist  on  a  some- 
what higher  quality  for  social  correspondence  than  would  the  group  of 
students  in  education  and  the  teacher  group.  But  even  the  non-teacher 
group,  which  set  the  highest  standard,  more  than  60  per  cent  consider 
quality  60  on  the  Ay  res  Scale  to  be  satisfactory. 

The  results  are  summed  up  by  Koos:  "In  the  light  of  these  facts  it  is 
difficult  to  see  why,  for  the  use  under  consideration,  a  pupil  should  be 
required  to  spend  the  time  necessary  to  learn  to  write  better  than  the  quality 
60.  There  is  even  considerable  justification  for  setting  the  ultimate 
standard  at  50  as  this  demand  touches  every  member  of  society.  All  the 
children  in  the  schools  should  be  required  to  attain  the  standard  set." 

The  second  part  of  Koos'  study  dealt  with  the  vocational  demand  for 
handwriting.  Handwriting  specimens  were  secured  and  scored  from  1127 
employees  in  24  vocational  groups.  The  tabulation  of  these  scores  is  repre- 
sented graphically  in  Figures  4  and  5.  It  will  be  seen  that  there  is 
large  variation  in  the  quality  of  writing  produced  by  persons  in  the  differ- 
ent vocational  groups.  Groups  5  to  10  in  Figure  4  and  most  of  the  groups 
in  Figure  5  write  with  a  quality  between  60  and  70.  It  is  obvious  that 
a  considerable  amount  of  handwriting  is  required  in  the  vocations  repre- 
sented by  these  groups.  The  elementary  school  teachers  are  included  in 
this  statement.     It  is  noteworthy  that  the  high  school  teachers  write  more 

Quality  on  Scale 
20         30        40         50        60        70       .  80        90 

1.  Messenger  department...  , gj , 

2.  Telegraphy 


— Q- 

3.  Claim  department t r^ 

4.  Credit  department. , B— 

5.  Railroad  department ,  . 

6.  Invoice  department # 


7.  Accounting  department. .  . 

8.  Distribution   department. 

9.  Bookkeeping  department. 

10.  Order  department 

11.  Account  sales  department 

12.  Miscellaneous 

13.  Departments    represented 


-B- 


-S- 
-B- 

-5h 


-B- 


-H- 


in  3  to  1 2  inclusive »  B • 

20         30        40         50        60  70         80         go 

Figure  4. — Ranges  and  averages  of  the  scores  of  handwriting  done  by  persons  in 
certain  occupational  groups.  (From  Table  V.  The  lines  represent  the  range  of 
quality  shown  by  the  specimens ;  the  squares  on  these  lines  locate  the  averages.) 
(Copied  with  permission  from  Koos,  op.  cit.  p.  437.) 


The  Third  Yearbook  211 


> 

3° 

40 

Qu 

alily  ^n  £cz\s 
50         60 

70 

80 

c 

-0 

• 

r^1 . . 

, 

a- 

* 

c— 

s- 

— a- 

E- 

.  ■    .      * 

• 

- 

— a— 

• 

9 

m 

— g}— 

-a — 

IE 

• 
• 

90 

I  »  t  I  I  •   • 

i.   "rinters 

..  '.trade-order  department  in  whole- 
sale establishment 

3.  Employees  in  country  banks  .... 

4.  Employees  in  insurance  office  .  .  . 

5.  Addressers  for  publishingcompany 

6.  Addressers  for  addressing  company 

7.  Addressers formail-order company 

8.  Billing  department  of  mail-order 

company 

g.  Check-refunds      department     of 
mail-order  company 

10.  Elementary-schoc!  teachers 

11.  High-school  teachers 

12.  University  teachers 

20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90 

Figure  5. — Ranges  and  averages  of  the  scores  of  handwriting  done  by  employees 
in  the  offices  of  two  packing  companies.  (From  Table  VI.  The  lines  represent 
the  range  of  quality  shown  by  the  specimens ;  the  squares  on  these  lines  locate  the 
averages.)       (Copied  with  permission  from  Koos,  op.  cit.  p.  438.) 

poorly  than  the  elementary  school  teachers  and  the  university  teachers  worse 
than  any  other  vocational  group  which  was  tested.  This  corresponds  with 
the  poor  writing  of  the  professional  group  in  the  study  of  social  corre- 
spondence. 

The  conclusions  concerning  the  second  part  of  the  study  are  summarized 
as  follows:  "The  quality  60  on  the  Ayres  Measuring  Scale  for  Adult  Hand- 
writing, which  we  have  set  up  as  the  ultimate  standard  of  attainment  for 
all  school  children  for  purely  social  purposes,  is  adequate  for  the  needs  of 
most  vocations.  This  will  apply  to  labor,  skilled  and  unskilled,  as  well  as 
for  the  professions,  exclusive  of  teaching  in  the  elementary  schools.  For 
that  large  group  who  will  go  into  commercial  work,  for  telegraphers,  and 
for  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools  it  will  be  necessary  to  insist  upon  the 
attainment  of  a  somewhat  higher  quality,  but  hardly  in  excess  of  the  quality 
70." 

The  author's  further  comments  concerning  the  application  of  this  standard 
may  also  be  quoted.  "The  fact  that  some  will  go  into  pursuits  demanding 
a  quality  better  than  60  should  not  be  offered  as  a  justification  for  requiring 
all  pupils  to  attain  that  better  quality.  .  .  .  Since  all  should  be  required 
to  learn  to  write  as  well  as  60  on  the  scale  for  purely  social  use,  to  train 
pupils  to  write  this  quality  is  the  task  of  general  education;  to  teach  some 
who  are  going  into  commercial  or  ether  vocations  requiring  a  higher  quality 
of  handwriting  to  write  this  better  quality  is  the  task  not  of  general  but  of 
vocational  education." 


212  Department  of  Superintendence 

Harry  Houston,  supervisor  of  penmanship  in  New  Haven,  Connecticut, 
reports  an  unpublished  study  made  in  1924.  The  results  are  reported  in 
Table  28. 

Table  28 — Average  Quality  and  Speed  of  Handwriting  of  Several 
Groups  of  Employees 

Number  Median         Median 

Occupations  tested  legibility  speed 

Bank  Employees 

a.  Using  handwriting  exclusively   18  51.66  128.33 

b.  Using  machine  writing  exclusively 23  51.5  130 

c.  Half  hand  writing  and  half  machine  writing.  .  .      8  54  137.5 
Department  Store  Employees 

a.  Office   Force    25  63.75  111.25 

b.  Sales     Force     25  49.5  120.62 

City  Clerk 12  55  132 

Insurance  Office  Employees 

a.  Using  handwriting  exclusively 29  60.5  87.9 

b.  Machine  and  hand  writing 7  64.37  82 

Mr.  Houston's  comment  upon  his  study  is,  "Very  few  occupations  de- 
mand high  skill  in  handwriting.  If  students  in  school  write  well  enough 
for  school  purposes,  it  is  believed  that  their  preparation  will  be  adequate  for 
social  and  business  uses."  It  is  to  be  noted  that  most  of  these  vocational 
groups  wrote  at  a  much  higher  speed  than  do  school  children. 

Investigations  by  the  Questionnaire  Method 

In  this  section  is  summarized  a  number  of  unpublished  questionnaire 
studies  which  were  designed  to  ascertain  the  opinion  of  business  men  con- 
cerning the  value  of  writing  and  concerning  the  type  or  quality  of  writing 
which  is  demanded  by  modern  business.  The  studies  are  taken  up  chrono- 
logically and  each  is  described  briefly. 

In  1917,  Mr.  J.  A.  Savage,  supervisor  of  writing  in  Omaha,  Nebraska, 
issued  a  questionnaire  to  about  200  business  and  professional  men  of  Omaha. 
This  questionnaire  consisted  of  a  letter  written  by  a  school  pupil  and  a  series 
of  questions  formulated  by  Mr.  Savage.    The  questions  were  as  follows : 

Of  how  much  importance  is  good,  rapid  business  writing  in  applying  for  a  posi- 
tion or  in  being  promoted  to  a  better  position? 

Is  business  affected  by  the  handwriting  of  employees? 

Is  economy  of  time  for  both  the  writer  and  reader  considered  by  the  business 
man    in    connection   with   penmanship? 

Is  the  age  of  penmanship  past? 

Considering  the  use  of  the  typewriter  and  of  office  appliances,  is  writing  still  of 
much   importance? 

Is  it  important  that  boys  and  girls  learn  to  make  figures  well  with  a  pen? 

Is  good  handwriting  a  valuable  enough  asset  to  make  it  worth  the  time  and 
effort   necessary  to    acquire   it? 

Such  a  questionnaire,  especially  when  sent  out  by  a  writing  supervisor, 
unquestionably   exerts   considerable    suggestive    force   in    the    direction    of 


The  Third  Yearbook  213 


answers  favorable  to  handwriting  standards.  The  answers,  however,  must 
be  considered  as  of  some  value  in  indicating  the  opinion  of  business  men 
concerning  the  business  demand. 

The  answers  contained  in  79  letters  received  in  reply  to  the  questionnaire 
were  classified.  The  classification  was  somewhat  unsatisfactory  since  most 
of  the  answers  contained  rather  general  statements  instead  of  the  expression 
of  judgment  on  specific  issues.  The  classification,  however,  is  presented  for 
what  it  is  worth : 

Handwriting  essential  and  of  major  importance 11 

Handwriting  essential  and  of  minor  importance 2 

Handwriting  essential  but  importance  not  indicated 11 

Handwriting  important  but  not  essential  or  not  stated  whether 

it    is    essential 54 

Handwriting  important   in   some   positions 1 

79 

One  gains  the  general  impression  from  reading  the  letters  that  legibility 
is  considered  of  greatest  importance  among  the  various  characteristics  which 
handwriting  may  possess.  Speed  and  ease  of  writing  are  regarded  as  im- 
portant but  subordinate  to  legibility.  A  large  number  of  the  correspond- 
ents indicated  that  good  penmanship  in  an  application  for  a  position  is  an 
important  factor.  All  who  mentioned  the  fact  agreed  that  legible  figures 
are  necessary. 

In  1918,  Mr.  H.  C.  Walker,  supervisor  of  penmanship  in  St.  Louis, 
made  a  somewhat  similar  questionnaire  study.  He  submitted  to  52  busi- 
ness men  who  employ  office  assistants  a  series  of  specimens  of  pupils'  writing 
and  asked  them  to  answer  the  following  questions,  after  having  selected  one 
of  the  specimens : 

1.  Why  do  you  prefer  the  size  and  style  shown  in  the  specimen  you  have  se- 
lected? 

2.  To  what  extent  do  you  consider  speed  important  in  present  day  penmanship? 

3.  (a)  Has  the  introduction  of  typewriters  and  adding  machines  made  the  value 
of  good  penmanship  of  less  importance?  (b)  If  so,  should  the  time  devoted  to 
penmanship  practice  by  public  schools  be  reduced? 

4.  Is  the  specimen  you  have  selected  good  enough  for  use  in  any  department  of 
your  establishment? 

5.  How  have  you  found  the  penmanship  of  recent  applicants? 

The  conclusions  drawn  by  Mr.  Walker  from  his  study  were  as  follows: 

First,  the  style  of  penmanship  preferred  by  a  majority  of  those  employing  office 
help  is  more  compact  than  we  have  heretofore  been  striving  for. 

Second,  the  attempt  we  have  made  to  develop  freedom  in  penmanship  is  in 
keeping  with  the  demands  of  the  business  world. 

Third,  typewriters  and  adding  machines  have  not  supplanted  long-hand  writing. 
As  one  man  stated,  "The  machines  have  reduced  the  volume  but  not  the  quality  of 
good  penmanship."     Another  man  stated,  "The  machines  have  made  good  writing 


214  Department  of  Superintendence 

less    important,    but   they    have   not   made    good    writing   when    needed    less    im- 
portant." 

Fourth,  the  standard  of  quality  in  long-hand  writing  for  business  purposes  is  not 
high. 

In  1922,  Miss  Florence  M.  Smith,  supervisor  of  penmanship  in  East 
Orange,  New  Jersey,  wrote  to  eleven  firms  requesting  their  opinions  con- 
cerning the  value  of  penmanship  in  business.  While  the  number  of  firms 
was  small,  they  included  some  of  the  largest  and  best  known  institutions 
in  the  country,  such  as  the  National  City  Bank,  the  Ford  Motor  Company, 
and  the  National  Cash  Register  Company.  The  officers  of  each  firm  who 
replied  expressed  their  opinion  that  handwriting  was  still  important  in  the 
preparation  of  children  for  business  careers. 

In  1923,  Mr.  Arlington  Swarts,  instructor  in  penmanship  in  Washington 
Junior  High  School,  Rochester,  New  York,  addressed  a  series  of  five  ques- 
tions to  thirty-four  business  men.  The  questions  were  put  in  personal  inter- 
views and  the  Ayres  Scale  was  used  as  a  standard  of  comparison.  All  but 
one  expressed  the  opinion  that  training  in  handwriting  was  essential  for 
business.  In  response  to  the  question  "In  the  writing  observed  in  your 
office,  where  is  the  greater  lack,  in  speed  or  in  good,  plain  letter  formation?" 
Twenty-nine  replied  that  the  greater  lack  was  in  letter  formation,  and  only 
two  in  speed.  Regarding  the  quality  of  writing  necessary,  twenty-four 
expressed  the  opinion  that  a  quality  of  60  or  below  on  the  Ayres  Scale  was 
sufficient.  Nine  considered  70,  80,  or  90  as  desirable,  and  one  expressed 
no  opinion.  Only  seven  considered  writing  of  a  quality  below  50  satisfac- 
tory. 

In  1924,  Miss  Myrtle  Ely,  supervisor  of  penmanship,  St.  Paul,  Minne- 
sota, sent  a  questionnaire  and  received  replies  from  118  business  men  of 
St.  Paul.  Over  100  held  that  penmanship  is  still  an  asset  to  business  men; 
that  in  passing  upon  applications  for  stenographic  positions  they  would  con- 
sider favorably  one  whose  penmanship  is  best,  and  other  things  being  equal, 
a  stenographer  writing  well  would  have  better  opportunity  for  advancement 
than  one  writing  poorly;  and  that  penmanship  is  important  specifically  for 
the  following  persons:  the  bookkeeper,  billing  clerk,  entry  clerk,  shipping 
clerk,  salesman,  and  office  boy.  Eighty-four  replied  that  they  would  pay 
a  higher  salary  to  a  stenographer  who  writes  a  small,  fluent,  "plain-as- 
print"  style  of  penmanship,  than  to  one  who  writes  poorly.  The  chief 
characteristic  which  seemed  to  be  emphasized  in  the  detailed  replies  was 
legibility. 

In  1924,  Mr.  H.  C.  Walker,  supervisor  of  handwriting  in  St.  Louis, 
had  interviews  with  representatives  of  six  different  types  of  business.  These 
represented  wholesale  houses,  bookkeeping,  insurance,  railways,  salesman- 
ship, and  filing.  All  but  the  last  indicated  that  speed  is  necessary,  but  all 
but  two  considered  medium  speed  sufficient.  Regarding  the  quality  neces- 
sary, one  reported  30  to  be  satisfactory,  two  40,  two  50,  seven  60,  and  one 
70.     The  consensus  of  opinion  seemed  to  be  that  60  was  a  reasonable 


The  Third  Yearbook  215 


standard.     Most  of  those  interviewed  regarded  the  quality  about  20  above 
the  essential  as  being  an  asset. 

Summary  and  Recommendations 

The  conclusions  from  the  foregoing  studies  and  the  recommendations 
which  are  based  upon  them  are  as  follows : 

1.  Standard  of  attainment  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  grade  as  deter- 
mined by  children's  achievements.  The  average  of  the  achievements  of 
children  selected  at  random  from  various  parts  of  the  country  is  from 
slightly  below  50  on  the  Ayres  Scale  to  about  55.  The  achievement  of  the 
sixth  grade  in  two  large  cities  and  in  the  upper  half  of  cities  taken  at  random 
is  slightly  under  60.  With  these  average  or  median  scores  may  be  com- 
pared the  distribution  of  scores  in  the  sixth  grade  which  is  given  by  Ayres 
on  his  Gettysburg  edition  of  his  scale.  This  distribution  indicates  that  71 
per  cent  of  the  children  of  the  sixth  grade  write  with  a  quality  of  50  or 
above  and  that  47  per  cent  write  with  a  quality  of  60  or  above. 

Conclusion.  So  far  as  the  achievement  of  children  indicates  it  would 
be  legitimate  to  set  up  as  a  standard  to  be  attained  by  the  very  large  majority 
of  children  by  the  end  of  the  sixth  grade  a  quality  equal  to  50  on  the  Ayres 
Scale.  It  would  be  legitimate  to  set  up  as  the  median  standard  for  the 
grades  the  quality  of  60  on  the  Ayres  Scale.  The  reasonable  standard  in 
speed  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  grade  is  the  median  rate  of  70  letters  per 
minute. 

2.  Standards  of  achievement  as  indicated  by  social  demand.  The 
social  demand  may  be  divided  for  convenience  into  three  divisions:  First, 
the  demand  of  the  school ;  second,  the  unspecialized  demand  of  social  corre- 
spondence and  individual  needs;  and  third,  the  demand  of  vocations. 

a.  The  demand  of  the  school — The  demand  of  the  school  for  legi- 
bility is  probably  about  the  same  as  that  which  arises  in  social  correspond- 
ence. The  demand  for  speed  is  not  a  definite  one  but  arises  out  of  the 
needs  of  economy  of  time  on  the  part  of  the  individual  writer.  The  child 
should,  therefore,  write  as  rapidly  as  can  reasonably  be  expected  to  write 
without  sacrificing  quality.  The  school  demand  for  legibility  is  the  same 
as  that  for  social  correspondence.  School  demand  for  speed  is  set  by  the 
achievements  of  children  and  may  be  considered  about  70  letters  per  minute. 

b.  The  demand  of  social  correspondence — According  to  Koos'  investiga- 
tion, 86.5  per  cent  of  adults  write  in  social  correspondence  with  a  quality  of 
60  or  less,  and  sixty-six  per  cent  write  with  a  quality  of  50  or  less;  81  per 
cent  of  the  judges  consider  the  quality  60  or  more  as  satisfactory  and  60  per 
cent  consider  the  quality  of  50  or  more  as  satisfactory.  These  facts  seem  to 
indicate  that  60  is  an  adequate  standard  for  the  median  of  the  class  in  the 
sixth  grade  and  that  50  is  an  adequate  minimum  standard  to  be  set  up  for 
each  child  to  attain. 

Conclusion.  Fifty  is  an  adequate  minimum  standard  and  60  an  ade- 
quate median  standard  of  quality  to  meet  the  demands  of  social  corre- 


216  Department  of  Superintendence 

spondence.  In  speed,  the  same  remark  holds  as  was  made  under  the  pre- 
vious section. 

c.  The  demand  of  vocations — In  Koos'  study  it  was  found  that  the  de- 
mand of  the  different  vocations  Varies  considerably.  The  clerical  occupa- 
tions in  which  handwriting  is  an  important  element  demand  in  general  a 
quality  somewhat  above  60.  The  other  vocations  are  satisfied  by  a  quality 
between  50  and  60.  The  questionnaire  studies  which  have  been  made  indi- 
cate that  even  in  the  clerical  occupations  in  which  handwriting  is  required, 
the  quality  60  is  the  one  most  commonly  demanded,  although  a  quality 
above  this  is  frequently  regarded  as  an  asset.  In  a  few  specialized  voca- 
tions, such  as  addressing,  a  still  higher  quality  is  demanded.  Speed  is  usually 
reckoned  as  less  important  than  legibility,  although  a  fair  degree  of  speed  is 
desirable. 

Conclusion.  Training  for  specialized  vocational  demands  is  not  the 
part  of  the  elementary  school.  If  the  quality  demanded  by  general  school 
life  and  by  social  correspondence  is  met,  a  sufficient  foundation  will  be  laid 
for  special  training  of  vocational  groups  in  the  junior  and  senior  high 
schools.  This  preparation  is  made  when  the  child  attains  the  standard 
already  set.  Some  improvement  may  be  expected  in  the  junior  high  school 
even  without  specialized  handwriting  drill.  It  will  be  safe,  therefore,  to 
leave  a  certain  margin  for  growth  between  the  end  of  the  elementary 
school  period  and  adulthood. 

Final  Conclusion.  At  the  end  of  the  sixth  grade  the  child  should  be 
expected  to  write  a  reasonably  fluent  and  a  plain,  legible  hand.  More  spe- 
cifically each  child  should  have  set  before  him  as  a  minimum  standard  a 
quality  equal  to  50  on  the  Ayres  Scale  and  a  speed  of  70  letters  per  minute. 
Those  children  who  have  not  attained  this  standard  by  the  end  of  the 
sixth  grade  should  be  given  continued  drill  in  the  seventh  grade  or  the 
junior  high  school.  The  class  median  standard  in  quality  for  the  end  of 
the  sixth  grade  should  be  60  on  the  Ayres  Scale. 


CHAPTER    VII 

THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES 

Harold  0.  Rugg,  Lincoln  School,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 
New  York  City,  Chairman 

WHEN  A  PERSON  attempts  to  make  curricula  for  training  citi- 
zens in  the  schools  one  may  take  one  of  two  courses.  He  may  se- 
lect the  content  by  an  a  priori,  haphazard,  "guessing"  method.  He 
may  simply  write  out  what  should  be  taught.  Or,  he  may  set  up  a  program 
of  investigation  that  will  seek  scientifically  to  discover  what  specific  infor- 
mation, habits,  attitudes,  and  ideals  should  be  provided.  By  this  method,  de- 
tailed and  careful  inventories  can  be  made  of  the  specific  things  or  activities 
about  which  one  needs  information  and  skill,  and  the  problems  with  which 
one  will  be  called  upon  to  deal  as  a  citizen  in  a  democracy,  and  the  qualities 
that  best  promote  one's  participating  efficiently  in  the  socially  desirable 
aspects  of  citizenship.1 

The  "guessing"  method,  although  by  far  the  most  common  method  of 
making  courses  for  the  training  of  citizens,  almost  inevitably  results  in  the 
selection  and  teaching  of  much  content  that  is  either  unrelated  or  rather 
remotely  related  to  the  actual  needs  of  young  citizens.  Research  workers, 
school  administrators,  and  teachers  interested  in  the  revision  of  the  course 
of  study  should  make  use  of  relatively  objective  methods  for  the  selection 
of  the  content.  Even  more  important,  they  should  demand  that  authors  of 
textbooks,  used  as  the  basic  reading  materials  of  the  courses  in  the  social 
sciences,  should  select  their  content  from  the  evidence  increasingly  becom- 
ing available  concerning  the  socially  valuable  activities  of  citizens.  This 
latter  statement  is  crucial  because  "under  the  conditions  that  are  general  in 
American  elementary  and  secondary  schools,  it  is  the  textbook  that  forms 
the  basis  of  instruction.  What  goes  into  the  elementary  textbook  is  there- 
fore a  matter  of  vital  significance.  The  relative  emphasis  that  is  given  to 
various  events,  the  names  that  are  kept  alive  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion, the  points  of  view  that  textbooks  reflect,  the  ideals  with  which  they 
will  tend  to  indoctrinate  their  immature  readers — all  of  these  factors  de- 
mand consideration  in  an  adequate  study  of  textbooks."2 

One  of  the  greatest  problems  in  curriculum  construction  is  the  selection 
of  content.    Writers  of  textbooks  admit  that  their  great  problem  also  is  to 


]  The  research  studies  reviewed  in  this  section  were  collected  and  analyzed  bj 
Earle  Rugg,  State  Teachers  College,  Greeley,  Colorado.  This  chapter  represents 
in  summary  form  a  part  of  his  forthcoming  monograph  entitled:  Studies  in  Cur- 
riculum Construction  of  the  Social  Studies. 

"Bagley,  W.  C,  and  Rugg,  Harold  O.  The  content  of  American  history  as  taught 
in  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  Bulletin  16,  School  of  Education,  Univ.  of  Illinois, 
Urbana,  111.     1916. 

[2171 


218  Department  of  Superintendence 

decide  what  facts  to  include  in  their  books.  Tradition  has  apparently 
solved  the  difficulty  by  including  some  facts  about  the  entire  field  of  each 
school  subject.  A  marked  characteristic  of  textbooks  is  that  they  are  com- 
prehensive. Textbooks  in  the  social  sciences  therefore  tend  to  be  encyclo- 
pedias ;  they  mention  many  persons,  dates,  countries,  cities,  topics,  and 
problems. 

It  is  obvious  that  under  such  an  organization  that  textbooks  can  not  dis- 
cuss any  one  fact  in  great  detail.  While  the  mastery  of  the  facts  included 
in  the  course  of  study  is  a  learning  rather  than  a  curriculum  problem,  it  is 
nevertheless  crucial  to  revision  of  the  course  of  study  because  the  use  of  the 
socially  desirable  facts  needed  in  life  is  hampered  when  we  attempt  to 
teach  too  many  facts  and  when  we-  do  not  give  sufficient  emphasis  to  the 
automization  of  socially  valuable  facts. 

In  times  past,  the  inclusion  of  much  content  in  the  curriculum  was  justi- 
fied partly  because  of  a  belief  in  formal  discipline.  It  was  asserted  that 
the  study  of  many  facts  was  proper  because  of  the  training  that  this  prac- 
tice gave  the  various  faculties  of  the  mind.  It  was  also  assumed  that  be- 
cause one  might  meet  a  given  fact  it  should  be  taught. 

Research  of  curriculum  makers  in  various  school  subjects  in  recent 
years  has  been  directed  to  the  study  of  the  most  frequent,  the  most  general, 
and  the  most  crucial  content.  These  students  of  the  course  of  study,  after 
careful  tabulation  of  the  comprehensive  curricula  used  in  schools  and  after 
analyzing  the  results  of  educational  achievement  tests  which  show  ob- 
jectively how  small  is  the  permanent  mastery  of  the  information,  skills, 
and  appreciations  now  taught,  have  carried  on  scores  of  semi-scientific 
investigations  to  discover  what  facts,  topics,  and  problems  are  of  greatest 
relative  use. 

The  outstanding  value  of  such  investigations  is  to  show  us  by  means 
of  impersonal  criteria  that  the  facts,  topics,  and  problems  of  relative  value 
are  only  a  small  part  of  the  sum  total  of  human  experience  and  knowledge 
in  each  field  and  also  that  the  socially  valuable  facts  are  similarly  only  a 
small  fraction  of  the  facts,  topics,  and  problems  now  included  in  the  school 
curriculum.  When  it  is  shown  that  we  do  include  too  many  facts  and  that 
pupils  retain  very  little  of  the  content  taught  them,  is  it  not  a  sound  hy- 
pothesis to  experiment  by  reconstructing  curricula  and  revising  teaching 
procedure  so  that  at  least  those  facts,  topics,  and  problems  that  have  come 
to  be  called  "the  minimal  essentials"  shall  be  permanently  mastered?  This 
does  not  imply  that  other  meaningful  and  needed  facts  should  not  be 
taught  or  that  content  aside  from  that  ascertained  to  be  socially  valuable 
for  all  pupils — the  common  integrating,  education  essential  to  efficient  par- 
ticipation of  citizens  in  a  democracy — shall  not  be  given  pupils  in  various 
localities  and  of  various  abilities,  capacities,  and  interests.  But  we  are  in- 
sistent that  the  most  frequently  mentioned,  the  most  generally  required,  and 
the  most  crucial  content — the  information,  habits,  attitudes,  and  ideals — be 
included  and  mastered.  ' 


The  Third  Yearbook  219 


This  chapter  of  the  Yearbook  principally  illustrates  investigations  deal- 
ing with  facts,  topics,  and  problems  that  one  probably  needs  to  know  because 
he  will  use  them  in  life.  It  also  indicates  relative  emphases,  for  it  shows  to 
some  degree  the  relative  probability  that  such  facts,  topics,  and  problems  are 
met  by  the  average  citizen. 

This  summary  report  has  been  organized  to  serve  seven  purposes.  The 
first  is  to  illustrate  four  methods  that  have  been  used  by  research  workers 
to  determine  topics  or  problems.  These  four  methods  are  illustrated  by  four 
studies  which  show  that  one  may  ( 1 )  ask  laymen  concerning  problems  to 
be  taught,  (2)  analyze  political  platforms  for  such  data,  (3)  use  the  judg- 
ment of  "frontier  thinkers"  concerning  problems,  or  (4)  seek  statements  of 
problems  in  periodicals.  The  second  purpose  is  to  supply  evidence  from  ten 
studies  concerning  what  facts  in  history,  geography,  and  civics  are  needed  in 
order  to  read  books  and  periodicals  intelligently.  In  the  third  place,  the 
report  summarizes  seven  studies  that  indicate  what  facts  and  topics  are 
stressed  in  social  science  textbooks  in  wide  use  in  the  schools.  Fourth,  there 
is  illustrated  the  use  of  the  judgments  of  content  specialists.  Fifth,  other 
ways  that  have  been  used  to  indicate  what  social  science  facts  are  needed  in 
life  are  illustrated.  Sixth,  examples  are  given  of  social  activities  in  which 
people  engage.  Seventh,  the  judgments  of  adults  as  to  the  life  values  of  the 
social  subjects  and  activities  that  were  part  of  their  instruction  in  school 
are  reviewed. 

While  the  evidence  from  these  studies  is  even  yet  exceedingly  tentative,  it 
is  suggestive  to  curriculum  makers.  It  probably  constitutes  a  sound  basis 
for  the  selection  of  the  needed  facts,  topics,  and  problems  to  be  included  in 
the  social  science  curriculum. 

One  should  not,  of  course,  accept  this  evidence  as  final.  Much  more 
research  is  needed.  Many  of  the  experiments  should  be  verified  by  repeat- 
ing the  technique  of  the  authors  of  the  studies  reviewed.  One  great  aspect 
of  citizenship  training — the  chief  province  of  the  social  sciences — has  not 
been  investigated  in  any  high  degree.  It  is  frequently  asserted  that  the  chief 
job  of  the  school  is  to  help  boys  and  girls  engage  efficiently  in  socially  desir- 
able activities  that  they  tend  to  engage  in  any  way  and  also  to  help  them 
engage  efficiently  in  more  desirable  activities.  Analyses  of  the  major  classes 
of  activities  all  show  that  citizenship  training  is  an  important  objective. 
But  the  particularized  activities  of  citizenship  have  not  been  ascertained 
except  in  a  small  way.  Things  that  citizens  do  and  ought  to  do  should  be 
investigated,  and  the  qualities  that  citizens  should  possess  must  also  be  dis- 
covered. 

Curriculum  makers  should  adopt  a  wider  view  of  the  problems  of  citizen- 
ship. To  the  present  time  there  has  been  an  assumption  that  citizenship 
training  will  be  well  provided  for  by  the  mere  organization  and  teaching 
of  what  might  be  termed  "reading"  courses  in  the  social  sciences — courses  in 
which  instruction  chiefly  emphasizes  persons,  dates,  and  events  in  history, 
place  location  facts  and  data  concerning  climate,  resources,  and  industries  in 


220  Department  of  Superintendence 

geography,  and  the  machinery  of  government,  the  powers  and  duties  of 
governmental  officials  in  civics.  A  "transfer"  has  been  assumed — namely, 
that  knowledge  of  such  facts  will  make  pupils  behave  as  good  citizens.  One 
may  well  doubt  this  "transfer"  by  merely  observing  citizens  about  them. 

An  important  step  in  curriculum  making  in  the  social  sciences,  is  to  dis- 
cover the  duties,  difficulties,  and  traits  of  good  citizens,  and  the  situations 
in  which  such  aspects  of  citizenship  are  found  and  best  promoted.1  In  the 
social  situations  of  life,  will  be  found  many  opportunities  for  training  citizens 
in  school  in  the  things  that  good  citizens  should  do.  School  administrators 
and  teachers  are  trying  to  make  school  life  like  life  outside  the  school — to 
make  school  a  miniature  society.  Every  individual  lives  and  should  live  a 
social  life.  A  large  part  of  one's  day  is  filled  with  social  contacts.  To  make 
these  contribute  most  fully  to  the  proper  fulfillment  of  one's  duties  as  a 
citizen  in  a  democracy,  where  the  obligations  for  efficient  government  rest 
upon  every  one,  is  the  pre-eminent  task  in  citizenship  training. 

Brief  Questions  At  Issue  in  Curriculum  Construction  in  the  Social  Sciences 

What  are  the  objectives  or  values  of  the  social  sciences? 

How  shall  theoretical  aims,  outcomes,  and  objectives  be  verified  ? 

Issue:  A  priori  versus  semi-scientific  methods  of  selecting  the  con- 
tent of  the  social  science  curriculum. 

What  criteria  shall  be  used  for  selecting  the  content  to  be  included  in  the 
social  sciences? 

What  content  in  the  social  sciences  shall  be  required  of  all  pupils. and  upon 
what  bases  shall  it  be  selected  ? 

How  can  differentiation  of  curriculum  material  be  made  to  provide  for 
individual  differences  in  ability  and  interests  of  pupils? 

How  shall  one  determine  the  problems  of  contemporary  society? 

What  criteria  should  be  used  in  determining  minimal  essential  facts? 

What  methods  shall  be  employed  to  determine  the  things  that  citizens  do  ? 

What  facts  concerning  the  learning  processes  of  children  must  be  con- 
sidered in  the  program  of  curriculum  revision  in  the  social  sciences? 

Review  of  Curriculum  Research  Studies  in  the  Social  Sciences 

This  chapter  of  the  Yearbook  reports  summaries  of  twenty-four  semi- 
scientific  studies  which  give  curriculum  makers  relatively  impersonal  ob- 
jective evidence  from  which  to  select  the  content  of  the  curriculum  in  the 
social  sciences.    These  studies  are  classified  into  four  groups: 

I.  Studies  that  Suggest  Possible  Methods  of  Determining  Problems  and  Activities 
of  Contemporary  Society: 

a.  Discovering  problems   by    analyses    of   published    writings    of   "frontier 
thinkers." 

b.  Discovering    problems    by    means    of    the    judgments    of    representative 
citizens 


1  Two  such  investigations  are  now.  being  made  by  graduate  students  in  Colorado 
State  Teachers  College.    These  will  probably  be  completed  by  the  summer  of  1925. 


The  Third  Yearbook  221 


c.  Discovering  problems  by  means  of  an  analysis  of  political  platforms 

d.  Discovering  problems  by  means  of  analyses  of  newspapers  and  maga- 
zines 

II.  Studies  of  Minimal  Essentials: 

a.  Studies  based  on  a  wide  range  of  objective  criteria 

b.  Studies  that  contribute  data  concerning  what  facts  in  history,  geography, 
and  civics  are  needed  in  order  to  read  periodicals  and  books  intelli- 
gently 

c.  Studies  that  contribute  data  concerning  facts,  dates,  persons,  topics,  and 
problems,  stressed  in  commonly  used  school  textbooks 

d.  Studies  that  endeavor  to  use  the  judgments  of  experts  concerning 
minimal  essentials 

e.  Studies  that  suggest  minimal  essentials  upon  other  standards  or  criteria 

III.  Studies  That  Are  Suggestive  for  Analysis  of  the  Activities  of  People  or  Current 
Modes  of  Living: 

IV.  Studies  That  Endeavor  to  Evaluate  the  Recreative  or  Leisure  Values  of  the 
Social  Sciences. 

I.     Studies  that  Suggest  Possible  Methods  of  Determining  the  Problems  of 

Contemporary  Society 

a.     Discovering  problems  by  analyses  of  published  writings  of  "frontier 

thinkers" 

STUDY  NO.  I.  Rugg,  Harold  O.  Problems  of  contemporary  life  as 
the  basis  for  curriculum  making  in  the  social  studies.1  The  Twenty-second 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  II,  1922. 
pp.  260-273. 

Problem.  To  discover  the  insistent  and  permanent  contemporary  prob- 
lems to  be  used  as  a  basis  for  organizing  materials  in  the  field  of  the  social 
studies  and  for  promoting  a  program  of  citizenship  training. 

Method.  The  theory  of  Dr.  Rugg  and  his  research  workers  engaged  in 
this  task  is  that  the  best  source  for  the  statement  of  insistent  and  persistent 
contemporary  problems  is  the  published  works  of  the  so-called  "frontier 
thinkers."  Specialists,  who  have  devoted  years  not  only  to  the  detailed 
intensive  study  of  the  theoretical  aspects  of  their  specialties,  but  who,  in 
many  cases,  have  become  practically  acquainted  with  these  problems  in 
the  field,  have  been  deemed  by  this  group  of  research  workers  to  be  best 
qualified  to  give  an  insight  into,  and  a  more  mature  judgment  concerning 
the  issues  of  present-day  life. 

The  published  writings  of  these  men  have  been  analyzed  partly  because 
they  afford  a  more  convenient  basis  for  discovering  these  problems  than 


1  Detailed  analyses  of  the  proportion  of  space  devoted  to  systematic  books  in 
each  of  the  major  groups  of  contemporary  problems  are  still  being  made  by  the 
research  group  engaged  in  the  collection  and  organization  of  The  Social  Science 
Pamphlets,  the  proposed  Junior  High  School  social  science  curriculum,  now  being 
experimented  upon  by  Harold  O.  Rugg,  Earle  Rugg,  and  Emma  Schweppe.  The 
results  of  the  entire  investigation,  now  in  its  fourth  year,  are  being  published  as  a 
series  of  essays  and  monographs  by  Harold  O.  Rugg. 


222  Department  of  Superintendence 

detailed  personal  interviews  and  partly  because  the  published  writings  of 
such  specialists  tend  to  be  more  critical  than  the  opinions  that  one  would 
get  from  personal  or  oral  interviews  with  them. 

To  determine  who  were  the  competent  specialists  in  each  field,  first,  the 
books  in  the  social  science  field  were  listed  that  appeared  in  the  Book  Review 
Digest  for  the  years  1915-22;  and  only  those  books  which  were  rated  by 
competent  reviewers  as  of  distinct  merit  were  taken  for  analysis.  Second, 
more  than  200  specialists  in  the  fields  of  history,  government,  economics, 
and  sociology  and  some  representative  editorial  writers  were  asked  to  name 
books  from  which  one  might  be  able  to  find  statements  of  problems.  Each 
of  the  specialists  was  asked  only  for  lists  of  books  within  his  own  special 
field.  Third,  these  lists  were  further  increased  by  a  critical  study  of  the 
book  reviews  in  six  weekly  and  several  monthly  journals  over  a  period  of 
five  years  following  the  war.1  Fourth,  a  careful  canvas  of  several  thousand 
books  in  the  field  of  the  social  sciences  on  the  shelves  of  the  Columbia  Uni- 
versity Library  was  made. 

From  these  four  lists,  over  two  hundred  selected  books  have  been  analyzed 
carefully  by  this  research  group  for  statements  of  contemporary  problems. 
Over  three  hundred  such  problems  having  to  do  with  issues  concerning  land, 
industry  and  business,  population,  community  life  in  the  American  city,  edu- 
cation, governmental  problems,  and  world  affairs  have  been  listed. 

Besides  these  major  types  of  problems  within  each  major  class  of  con- 
temporary issues,  the  investigation  was  concerned  with  the  detailed  ques- 
tions that  these  writers  discuss  in  connection  with  their  treatment  of  the 
problems  in  their  field. 

Findings.  The  books  of  "frontier  thinkers"  listed  below  are  typical  of 
those  upon  which  statements  of  contemporary  problems  and  issues  have  been 
based.  The  authors  of  these  books  were  selected  as  competent  specialists  on 
the  basis  of  one  or  more  of  the  criteria  for  selection  mentioned  above. 

Books  of  "Frontier  Thinkers" 

A.  Problems  of  Immigration: 

Jenks,  J.  W.,  and  Lauch,  J.     The  immigration  problem.     N.  Y.,  Funk  and 

Wagnalls. 
Kellor,  Frances.     Immigration  and  the  future.     N.  Y.,  G.  H.  Doran  Co. 
Americanization  studies.     Allen  T.  Burns,  Editor.     N.  Y.,  Harper  &  Bros. 

B.  Problems  which  Deal  with  Natural  Resources: 

Mead,  E.     Helping  men  own  farms.     N.  Y.,  Macmillan. 

Van  Hise,  C.  R.     Conservation  of  natural  resources.     N.  Y.,  Macmillan. 

C.  Problems  of  Industry  and  Business: 

Cole,  G.  D.  H.     Chaos  and  order  in  industry.     London,  Mathuen. 
Federated    American    Engineering    Societies.      Waste    in    industry.      N.    Y., 

McGraw-Hill  Book  Co. 
Gleason,  Arthur.     What  the  workers  want.     N.  Y.,  Harcourt  Brace. 


1  As  a  rule,  book  reviews  are  written  by  men  competent  in  the  field  of  the  book 
that  they  are  reviewing.  Many  of  these  reviewers  possess  as  high,  if  not  a  higher, 
rating  as  specialists  in  the  field,  than  the  writers  of  the  book  setting  forth  the 
problems.  • 


The  Third  Yearbook  223 


Hobson,  J.  A.     Evolution  of  modern  capitalism.     N.  Y.,  Scribners. 
Marshall,  L.  C.     Reading  in  industrial  society.     Chicago,  University  of  Chi- 
cago Press. 
Tawney,  R.  H.     The  acquisitive  society.     N.  Y.,  Harcourt  Brace. 
Veblen,  T.     Theory  of  business  enterprise.     N.  Y.,     Charles  Scribner's  Sons 
Zimmern,  A.    Nationality  and  government.     N.  Y.,  Robert  M.  McBride  Co. 

D.  Problems  Involved  in  Developing  and  Maintaining  an  Adequate   and  Efficient 

Transportation  System  in  America: 

Johnson,  E.  R.  and  Van  Metrie,  T.  W.    Principles  of  Transportation.    N.  Y., 
D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

E.  Problems  of  the  American  City: 

Fosdick,  Raymond.     American  police  systems.     N.  Y.,  Century. 

Howe,  F.  C.     The  modern  city  and  its  problems.     N.  Y.,  Charles  Scribner's 

Sons. 
Whitaker,  C.  H.     The  joke  about  housing.     Boston,  Marshall,  Jones. 
Wood,  Edith.     Housing  of  the  unskilled  wage  earner.     N.  Y.,  Macmillan. 

F.  Problems  of  Education   and  the  Formation  of   Intelligent  Public  Opinion: 

Lippmann,  W.     Public  opinion.     N.  Y.,  Harcourt  Brace. 
Robinson,  J.  H.     Mind  in  the  making.     N.  Y.,  Harper  &  Bros. 
Wallas,  G.     The  great  society.     N.  Y.,  Macmillan. 

G.  Problems  of  Government  in  the  American  Democracy: 

Beard,  C.  A.     American  government  and  politics.     N.  Y.,  Macmillan. 
Bryce,  James.     Modern  democracies.     2  vols.     N.  Y.,  Macmillan. 
Garner,  J.  W.    Introduction  to  political  science.     N.  Y.,  American  Book  Co. 
Lippmann,  W.     Preface  to  politics.     N.  Y.,  Henry  Holt. 
Merriam,  C.  E.     American  political  ideas.     N.  Y.,   Macmillan. 
Wallas,  G.     Human  nature  in  politics.     London,  Constable  &  Co. 
H.  Problems  of  World  Affairs: 

Moulton,  Harold  G.  and  Bass,  John  F.     America  and  the  balance  sheet  if 

Europe.    N.  Y.,  Ronald  Press. 
Bryce,  James.     International  relations.     N.  Y.,  Macmillan. 
Gibbons,  H.  A.    Introduction  to  world  politics.     N.  Y.,  Century. 

New  Map  of  Asia,  New  Map  of  Africa,  New  Map  of  Europe. 
Keynes,  J.  M.  Economic  consequences  of  the  peace.  N.  Y.,  Harcourt,  Brace. 
Vanderlip,  F.  A.     What  next  in  Europe.     N.  Y.,  Harcourt,  Brace. 

Table  29  gives  the  space  allotment  in  number  of  pages  to  any  one  ques- 
tion selected  at  random  under  six  typical  major  problems  presented  by 
writers  of  twelve  books  on  American  community  life.  The  figures  in 
parentheses  indicate  the  total  number  of  pages  devoted  to  each  problem. 

Table  29  illustrates  the  results  of  this  method  of  analyzing  the  published 
writings  of  specialists  for  their  "opinions"  on  insistent  problems  and  ques- 
tions. 

This  study  indicates  the  basic  problems  and  questions  in  the  minds  of 
specialists  who  are  perhaps  best  qualified  to  state  such  problems.  The  next 
two  studies  indicate  other  sources  for  problems:  Cocking  asked  rep- 
resentative "lay"  citizens  for  problems  and  Bassett  analyzed  political 
platforms  for  problems.  This  study,  however,  presents  the  problems  and 
questions  that  the  deepest  and  keenest  students  of  society,  according  to  their 
critics,  deemed  to  be  of  crucial  importance  to  us. 

Another  contrast  to  be  noted  between  this  study  and  other  studies  using 
such  standards  as  Cocking  and  Bassett  used  is  that  the  latter  studies  fur- 
nish the  basis  for  making  curricula  only  for  children  in  life  as  it  is — that 
is,  they  tend  to  ignore  the  demands  of  a  rapidly  changing  society.     This 


224 


Department  of  Superintendence 


TABLE  29A 


General  problems  and  illustrative 
questions  taken  at  random 

Bruere,  H. 

The  New  City 

Government. 

1912 

Cooke,  M. 
Our  Cities 
.    Awake. 

1918 

Howe,  F. 
The  City  the 

Hope  of 

Democracy. 

1905 

Howe,  F. 

The  Modern 

City. 

1915 

I.  Problem    of    organizing    and 
maintaining  the  best  form  of  mu- 
nicipal government. 

To    what    extent    are    corrup- 
tion or  self  seeking  interests  re- 
sponsible for  poor  government? 

11-12(1) 

234-236(2) 

1-8(7M) 

43-60(17) 
61-91(30) 
92-112(20^) 

50-51(1) 
59-61(1 34) 
92-95  (3  M) 
149-163(15) 

II.   Problem  of  wise  city  plan- 
ning. 

To   what  extent  does   the   city 
plan  and  the  general  "lay  out" 
of  the  city  take  into  account 
provision   for   parks   and   play- 
grounds.     (Why  impt.) 

279  (6  lines) 

245-247(2) 

199-200(1) 

III.  Problem  of  providing  and 
maintaining  efficient  public  works 
in  the  community. 

How  is  sewage  collected  and  dis- 
posed of? 

245  (x) 
247  (x) 

57  (x) 

35(34) 
36  (x) 

IV.  Problem  of  getting  the  com- 
munity to  organize  and  properly 
maintain    educational    opportuni- 
ties for  all  citizens. 

How  and  why  should  communi- 
ties make  wider  use  of  the  school 
plant? 

311-312(134) 

313(34) 

314-316(2) 

V.  Problem  of  developing  ade- 
quate    and     maintaining     proper 
health  agencies  in  the  community. 

Why  are  health  standards  low  in 

the  community? 

88  (x) 
314-315(13^) 
319(^) 
401-413(12^) 

188(34) 

265-266  (1M) 

VI.  Problem  of  adequately  pro- 
viding for  and  improving  leisure 
and   recreation   by   means   of   di- 
rected   community    opportunities 
for  play  and  for  social  opportun- 
ities. 

Is  municipal  provision  for  play 
and    social    opportunities    ade- 
quate? 

2(x)   21(x) 

22(34) 

239(34) 

240-241(34) 

242-243(34) 

91(H) 

316-317(1) 
375-(x) 

technique  of  problem  analysis  not  only  attempts  to  find  out  problems  of  the 
day,  but  because  these  specialists  have  for  twenty  years,  at  least,  been  point- 
ing out  these  problems  and  questions,  it  seems  likely  that  by  taking  their 
statements  or  their  opinions,  we  are  more  apt  to  equip  children  for  our 
rapidly  changing  society,  particularly  in  the  next  twenty  years.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  problems  now  being  discussed  were  included  in  the  pub- 
lished writings  of  these  specialists  in  the  90's  and  early  1900's. 

"Are  we  not  delinquent  representatives  of  that  agency  (the  school)  unless 
besides  making  our  curriculum  keep  pace  with  the  changes  of  that  society, 
we  anticipate  what  those  changes  are  going  to  be  artd  use  the  curriculum  to 
prepare  children  to  meet  them?" 

Figure  6  on  page  226  indicates  how  these  problems  serve  as  the  control 
for  the  organization  and  collection  of  a  wealth  of  materials  in  the  field  of 
the  social  sciences.  By  means  of  detailed  allusions,  pupils  doubtless  will  be 
forced  from  the  organization  of  material  to  draw  their  own  conclusions  con- 
cerning current  modes  of  living  and  contemporary  problems  and  issues. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


225 


TABLE  29B 


Wilcox. 
Great  Cities 
of  America. 

1910 

James,  H. 
Municipal 
Functions. 

1917 

Munro, 
W.   Mu- 
nicipal 
Admin- 
istration 
1916 

Righter,  C. 

City  Man- 
ager in 
Dayton. 

1919 

Taylor,  G. 
Satellite 
Cities. 

1915 

Wilcox. 
The  Ameri- 
can   City. 

1904 

Wilcox. 
The  Study 
of  City 
Govern- 
ment 
1897 

Zueblin. 
American 
Municipal 
Progress. 

1902 

180(x) 
244-272(28%) 
308-309  (1%) 
311-312(1%) 
381-388(6%) 

276(x) 

149-151(1*3) 

195-196(*3) 

213-218(5*3) 

20 (*3) 
93(x) 

19-21(2) 

53-54(1) 
55(*3) 
213-216(2*3) 

206-207 
(IK) 

57-58(1) 

53-54(1) 

59-60(1) 

121-122(1) 

19(*3) 
246-275(29) 

56(J3) 

222(H) 
295(%) 
359-360(1) 

5(%)10(x) 

15(%)22(%) 
56(x)S4(%) 
227-237 
(10%) 

183-206 

(23M) 

129-131(2) 
133(J3) 

183(%)30(x) 
234  (x) 
240(x) 
138(x) 
166(x) 
243(x) 

53-54 (*3) 

29-30  (*3) 

105-107(2%) 

106-107 
(IK) 

399-402 

(2%) 

218-220(2) 
220(*3) 
122(*3) 

56-58(1  K) 
123(%) 

236-238 
(1*3) 

149-155(6) 
159-166 

(6%) 
131(*3) 

44(*3) 
278(1) 

68-70(1  K) 

75-78(3%) 

191-192(*3) 

193-194(1) 

144(M) 

192(%) 

192(%) 

205-206(1) 

163(%) 
169-170 

aw 

401-402 
(%) 

84(%) 

237(K) 

448(x) 

19-20(%) 

144(x) 
181-182(*3) 
220(*3) 
223-224(1%) 

111-114(3*3) 
158-159(1) 

241-246(4*3) 

b.  Discovering  problems  by  means  of  the  judgments  of  representative 
citizens. 

STUDY  NO.  2.  Cocking,  Walter  Dewey.  The  attitude  of  the 
public  to  the  teaching  of  citizenship.  Unpublished  Master  of  Arts  Thesis 
on  file  in  the  Library,  State  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City,  Iowa. 

Problem.  To  show  what  the  layman  regards  as  the  topics  that  should 
be  emphasized  in  the  teaching  of  citizenship. 

Method.  An  attempt  was  made  to  obtain  a  cross  section  of  the  public 
opinion  of  the  State  of  Iowa.  To  do  this,  members  of  representative 
classes  of  society  were  selected.  Over  eighteen  hundred  people  were  se- 
lected from  the  following  list : 

Buena    Vista    Grade   teachers  Business  men 

Home  makers  Working  women 

City  superintendents  Editors 

Buena  Vista  rural  teachers  Common  laborers 

County    superintendents  Bankers 

Clergymen  City  officials 

Civics  teachers  State  officials 

Lawyers  County  officials 

American  Legion  men  Farmers 

Political  scientists  Traveling  men 
A  miscellaneous  group 


226 


Department  of  Superintendence 


An  effort  was  also  made  to  get  a  sufficient  representation  of  each  group 
— for  example,  500  home  makers  were  chosen  to  represent  the  opinion  of 
the  mothers  of  the  states.  Many  of  these  representatives  were  members 
of  committees  having  to  do  with  Americanization  and  citizenship  of  their 

Figure  6* 


The  insistent  and  perma- 
nent problems  and  issues  of 
contemporary    economic,    so- 
cial, and  political  life. 

The  basic  questions  that  must  be  answered  before 
an  intelligent  discussion  of  the  problem  and  issues 
of  the  day  is  possible. 

Episodes,        narratives,        descriptive 
graphic,  statistical,  and  pictorial  matter 
which  deal  with  current  modes  of  living 
and    their    historical    backgrounds    and 
through  which  basic  questions  are  dis- 
cussed and  an  appreciation  is  developed 
of  the  problems  and  issues  of  contempo- 
rary life. 

The   fundamental   gen- 
eralizations which  experts 
in  various  fields  agree  are 
useful  guides  for  the  con- 
sideration      of       current 
modes   of    living,    and   of 
contemporary       problems 
and  issues. 

local  woman's  clubs.  To  secure  representative  farmers,  the  farm  presi- 
dents of  99  county  farm  bureaus  were  selected.  Some  such  standard  was 
used  to  secure  proper  representatives  for  each  of  the  groups  cited  above.  Of 
those  selected,   593  suggested  topics. 

Findings.  "The  593  people  in  their  replies  as  to  what,  in  their  judg- 
ment, should  be  emphasized  in  the  teaching  of  citizenship  offered  4728 
definite  suggestions,  or  an  average  of  7.97  suggestions  per  person.  It  was 
found  that  the  4728  suggestions  fall  into  247  separate  and  distinct  classi- 
fications." 


1  Rugg,  Harold  O.  Problems  of  contemporary  life  as  the  basis  for  curriculum 
making  in  the  social  sciences.  Chapter  XV,  Part  II,  Twenty-second  Yearbook  of 
the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.  <  , 


The  Third  Yearbook  227 


Table  30  gives  the  frequency  of  mention  of  the  ten  most  frequently 
mentioned  topics  and  the  ten  least  frequently  mentioned  topics  out  of  the 
247  citizenship  topics  suggested  by  these  representative  groups  of  citizens. 

Table  30. — Topics  Suggested  by  Laymen  to  be  Emphasized  in  the  Teaching  of 

Citizenship 

Number  of 
Topic  times  mentioned 

Individual  duties,  responsibilities,  and  privileges  as  a  citizen 224 

Duty  to  vote 221 

Respect  and  obedience  for  law 213 

Responsibility  of  the  individual  to  the  community 143 

Cooperation  in  community  affairs 126 

Public  health 125 

Honesty 122 

Government,  its  purpose,  importance,  growth,  benefits,  and  principles....  1.16 

Payment  of  taxes  willingly 102 

Respect  for  the  rights  of  others 101 

Confidence  in  men 1 

Symbolic  meaning  of  our  national  capitol 1 

Tolerance    1 

Memorizing    orations 1 

Boy    Scouts 1 

Respect  for  war  veterans 1 

Memorizing  oath  of  allegiance 1 

Efforts  toward  advancement 1 

Pride  in  local  state 1 

Work  a  cure  for  idleness 1 

A  study  of  Table  30  shows  that  some  curriculum  makers  obtained  from 
a  summary  of  lay  opinion  specific  points  to  be  taught ;  for  example,  duty  to 
vote,  public  health,  and  payment  of  taxes.  Other  topics  require  further 
and  more  refined  analysis.  It  is  probably  of  little  value  to  know  that  one 
should  teach  individual  duties,  responsibilities,  and  privileges  of  a  citizen 
or  responsibility  of  the  individual  to  the  community,  unless  one  discovers 
specifically  by  investigation  what  the  detailed  duties  or  responsibilities  of  a 
citizen  are.  Learning  is  specific,  and  if  one  wishes  to  teach  such  topics, 
one  must  discover  the  specific  items  that  should  be  memorized  or  that 
should  be  automatized. 

Studies  are  now  being  undertaken  in  Colorado  State  Teachers  College, 
following  the  technique  of  interviewing  outlined  by  Dr.  Charters,  to  dis- 
cover what  duties  citizens  perform,  what  difficulties  they  face,  and  what 
qualities  citizens  should  possess. 

STUDY  NO.  3.  Breeze,  Retha  E.  "What  constitutes  good  citizen- 
ship?"   The  School  Review,  Vol.  32,  September,  1924,  pp.  534-536. 

Problem.  To  determine  those  traits  or  qualities  that  are  supposedly 
essential  to  being  an  efficient  citizen. 

Method.  A  class  in  education  in  Will  Mayfield  College,  Missouri, 
wrote  to  four  hundred  of  the  leading  men  and  women  of  the  United 
States  whose   names   appeared   in   the   latest   edition   of    Who's    Who    in 


228 


Department  of  Superintendence 


America.  These  persons  represented  fifteen  occupations  and  professions  in 
which  the  majority  of  the  American  people  are  engaged.  They  also 
included  people  from  every  state  in  the  Union.  These  people  were  asked 
to  give  five  or  more  traits  that  they  considered  most  essential  to  efficient 
citizenship. 

Findings.  There  were  148  people  who  replied.  Different  traits  to 
the  number  of  212  were  found  in  a  total  of  819  that  were  submitted. 

Table  31  shows  the  five  most  frequently  mentioned  traits  and  the  five 
least  frequently  mentioned  traits  as  indicated  in  the  tables  submitted  in 
Miss  Breeze's  article. 


TABLE    31.— TRAITS    OR    QUALITIES    SUPPOSEDLY    ESSENTIAL    TO    AN 

EFFICIENT  CITIZEN 


Highest  five 

Honesty 

Knowledge   of  and  an  interest   and 

participation    in    national,    state, 

and  local  affairs. 

Industry 

Religious  traits,  such  as  reverence  for 

God,  Christianity,  etc. 
Loyalty 


Frequency 


Lowest  five 


Frequency 


58 
56 


47 

28 


25 


Fairness 

Initiative 

Energy 

Faithfulness.  .  . 

Love  for  others 


The  writer  of  this  article  says  "that  the  efficient  citizen  must  be  honest 
and  industrious,  he  must  be  intelligently  interested  in  the  affairs  of  the 
nation,  the  state,  and  the  community,  and  actively  participate  in  them,  he 
must  respect  and  obey  the  law  and  advocate  its  enforcement.  Loyalty, 
patriotism  and  public  spirit  must  rank  high  in  characterizing  him.  He 
must  have  religious  ideals  developed  within  him.  To  these  traits  must  be 
added  courage,  tolerance,  intelligence,  integrity,  open-mindedness,  good 
health,  willingness  to  serve,  liberal  education,  cooperation,  unselfishness, 
and  character." 

Such  a  list,  although  in  all  likelihood  incomplete,  is  of  value  for  deter- 
mining specific  traits  to  be  promoted  in  any  program  of  citizenship  train- 
ing.   A  much  more  exhaustive  study  should  be  made. 

(c)  Discovering  problems  by  means  of  an  analysis  of  political  plat- 
forms. 

STUDY  NO.  4.  Bassett,  B.  B.  The  content  of  the  course  of  study  in 
civics.  Seventeenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education,  Part  I,  1918,  pp.  63  to  80.  His  detailed  Ph.  D.  Disserta- 
tion, on  file  in  the  Library,  State  University  of  Iowa,  is  entitled  Civic 
instruction  of  the  American  electorate. 

Problem.  To  determine  by  an  analysis  of  political  platforms  "what 
are  the  most  significant  and  most  persistent  problems  of  the  American 
people  which  seek  solution  through  the  machinery  of  government."  This 
purpose  was  adopted  on  the  theory  that  there  should  be  civic  instruction 
in  a  democracy  to  prepare  pupils  for  the  intelligent  exercise  of  the  fran- 


The  Third  Yearbook 


229 


chise.  Political  platforms  were  selected  as  a  source  for  the  statement  of 
problems  on  the  theory  that  these  platforms  would  "reflect"  the  issues  of 
the  day.  According  to  Walter  E.  Weyl,  "The  platform  does  not  show 
what  the  politician  wants ;  but  does  show  what  that  astute  person  believes 
that  the  people  want.  The  superlative  value  of  the  platform  as  evidence 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  always  addressed  to  a  potential  majority." 

Method.  Bassett  analyzed  the  national  platforms  of  all  political 
parties  since  the  first  National  convention  in  1832;  State  platforms  in 
non-presidential  years  from  1889  in  so  far  as  they  deal  with  National 
issues;  all  of  the  platforms  of  major  parties  for  1910;  platforms  of  major 
parties  in  certain  selected  pivotal  states — namely,  California,  Indiana,  and 
New  York,  since  1850;  all  platforms  of  the  parties  in  Iowa  since  1889  and 
the  platforms  of  parties  in  one  southern  State. 

Three  units  of  measurement  were  used:  (1)  The  linear  inch,  (2) 
frequency  of  mention — that  is,  the  number  of  platforms  in  which  a  given 
topic  occurs,  and  (3)  single  platform  proposals,  i.  e.,  the  number  of  dis- 
tinct proposals  under  each  topic. 

Findings.  After  detailed  analysis  of  all  the  topics  and  sub-topics 
within  the  following  major  political  problems  according  to  these  various 
units  and  measurements,  Bassett  was  able  to  rank  the  problems  under  the 
following  26  topics: 


1. 

Commerce,  Foreign 

14. 

Monetary  System 

2. 

Corporations,  Interstate 

15. 

Moral  Reform 

3. 

Constitution 

16. 

Natural  Resources 

4. 

Defense,  National 

17. 

Office,  Public 

5. 

Education 

18. 

Parties,  Political 

6. 

Finance,  Public 

19. 

Pensions 

7. 

Foreign  Relations 

20. 

Personal  Rights 

8. 

Health 

21. 

Postal  Service 

9. 

Immigration 

22. 

State  Rights 

10. 

Industry 

23. 

Suffrage 

11. 

Justice 

24. 

Territories    (and    Dependencies 

12. 

Labor 

25. 

Works,  Public 

13. 

Legislation 

26. 

Miscellaneous 

Table  32  shows  the  rank  of  the  major  problems  mentioned  by  all 
parties — by  the  Democratic  party,  by  the  Republican  party,  by  the  Dem- 
ocratic and  Republican  together,  and  also  checks  the  five  highest  ranking 
topics  in  each  campaign. 

Dr.  Bassett's  study  shows  that:  (1)  Certain  problems  run  back 
through  the  platforms  of  the  parties  because  they  are  inherent  in  the 
structure  of  government;  for  example,  public  finance,  foreign  relations, 
etc.;  (2)  Others  are  persistent  from  the  economic  organization  of  so- 
ciety— for  example,  corporations,  labor,  etc.;  and  (3)  Others  are  per- 
sistent because  there  always  are  groups  of  people  who  are  interested  in 
undertaking  social  reforms. 


230 


Department  of  Superintendence 


TABLE  32.- 


-FREQUENCY  RANK  OF  MAJOR  PROBLEMS  MENTIONED  IN 
PLATFORMS  OF  POLITICAL  PARTIES 


Rank 

All  parties 

Democratic 

Republican 

Democratic  and 

Highest  five  in 

party 

party 

Republican 

each  campaign 

1 

Finance 

Finance 

Finance 

Finance 

Finance 

2 

Office 

Foreign  relations 

Foreign  relations 

Foreign  relations 

Moral  reform 

3 

Foreign  relations 

Office 

Office 

Office 

Foreign  relations 

4 

Moral  reform 

State  rights 

Commerce 

Nat'l  Resources 

Office 

5 

Immigration 

Territories 

Nat'l  resources 

Works 

Corporations 

6 

Nat'l  resources 

Legislation 

Corporations 

Labor 

Labor 

7 

Labor 

Corporations 

Immigration 

Territories 

Monetary  system 

8 

Monetary  system 

Nat'l  resources 

Justice 

Defence 

Parties 

9 

Defence 

Works 

Monetary  system 

Immigration 

Constitution 

10 

Works 

Defence 

Defence 

Commerce 

State  rights 

11 

Legislation 

Moral  reform 

Labor 

Moral  reform 

Territories 

12 

Commerce 

Immigration 

Territories 

Monetary  system 

Nat'l  resources 

13 

Territories 

Constitution 

Moral  reform 

Pensions 

Legislation 

14 

Personal  rights  - 

Personal  rights 

Suffrage 

State  rights 

Immigration 

15 

Suffrage 

Pensions 

Postal  system 

Constitution 

Pensions 

16 

Constitution 

Monetary  system 

Constitution 

Justice 

Personal  rights 

17 

Pensions 

Commerce 

Parties 

Personal  rights 

Industry 

18 

Parties 

Parties 

Personal  rights 

Legislation 

19 

State  rights 

Education 

State  rights 

Parties 

20 

Education 

Suffrage 

Education 

Suffrage 

« 

21 

Postal  system 

Health 

Health 

Postal  system 

22 

Justice 

Industry 

Industry 

Education 

23 

Industry 

Postal  system 

Pensions 

Health 

24 

Health 

Justice 

Industry 

The  data  show  that  certain  matters  of  vital  interest  in  times  past,  such 
as  a  strict  or  liberal  construction  of  the  Constitution  and  State  rights  are 
being  stressed  less;  while  with  the  rapid  changes  in  industry,  political 
platforms  give  more  and  more  space  to  questions  having  to  do  with  labor 
and  corporations.  In  the  last  twenty-five  years  America  has  become  in- 
creasingly a  world  power,  and  one  finds  more  attention  paid  to  issues  hav- 
ing to  do  with  foreign  relations.  From  the  analysis  of  Dr.  Bassett's  de- 
tailed data,  one  gets  not  only  a  crude  check  as  to  the  major  types  of  prob- 
lems summed  up  in  political  platforms,  but  one  also  obtains  in  a  certain 
measure  the  trends  or  relative  emphases  to  various  topics  from  which  it  is 
possible  to  predict  somewhat  generally  the  problems  of  the  next  gener- 
ation. 

A  difficulty  that  arises  is  that  the  problems  listed  are  not  sufficiently 
defined.  For  example,  there  are  many  problems  having  to  do  with  labor, 
with  corporations,  and  with  foreign  relations.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to 
state  definitely  the  problems  within  each  of  these  fields  and  then  to  deter- 
mine the  amount  of  space  given  to  each  subordinate  problem  in  political 
platforms.     More  refined  analysis,  following  Dr.  Bassett's  lead,  is  needed. 

Dr.  Bassett's  list  is  valuable  as  a  check  upon  studies  that  use  other  cri- 
teria for  determining  the  content  of  courses  in  civics.  For  example,  one 
may.  well  use  not  only  the  results  of  the  Cocking  study,  using  the  judg- 
ments of  representative  citizens  concerning  what  ought  to  be  taught,  and 
the  Rugg  study,  using  the  judgment  of  the  "frontier"  specialists  in  various 
fields  of  the  social  sciences,  but  also  the  findings  obtained  by  analyzing  the 
platforms  of  political  parties.  ...  '< 


The  Third  Yearbook 


231 


(d)  Discovering  problems  by  means  of  analyses  of  newspapers  and 
magazines. 

STUDY  NO.  5.  Davis,  Maude  Bennett.  Topics  to  be  included  in 
instruction  in  civics  as  indicated  by  an  analysis  of  current  periodicals.  Un- 
published Master  of  Art  Thesis  on  file  in  the  Library,  Univ.  of  Chicago, 
Chicago,  111. 

Problem.  To  throw  light  upon  the  content  of  a  course  of  civics  by 
making  an  analysis  of  current  periodicals. 

Method.  First,  an  analysis  of  twenty-one  periodicals  covering  the  six 
months,  October,  1920,  to  April,  1921,  was  made;  and  second,  a  similar 
analysis  of  the  topics  listed  in  the  Reader  s  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature 
for  October,  1920,  was  made. 

The  following  standards  were  used  for  selecting  the  magazines.  A 
selected  list  approved  by:  (1)  The  American  Library  Association,  (2)  the 
Massachusetts  Library  Association,  (3)  the  Reader's  Guide  to  Periodical 
Literature,  (4)  three  lists  recommended  for  high  school  use,  and  (5)  a  list 
believed  by  the  writer  to  represent  extreme  radical  opinion. 

Those  magazines  dealing  with  special  subjects  or  devoted  to  particular 
interests  like  juvenile  cases  and  social  organizations  were  rejected. 
Twenty-one  magazines  were  chosen.  Table  33  shows  the  magazines  that 
were  finally  selected  for  analysis. 


TABLE   33- 


-TWENTY-ONE    MAGAZINES    SELECTED    FOR    ANALYSIS    IN 
OBTAINING  CIVIC  TOPICS 


Name  of  magazine 


Total 
Circulation 


Number  of 

Issues 

analyzed 


Total 

Number  of 

pages 


American  City 

American 

Atlantic  Monthly 

Current  History 

Current  Opinion 

Forum 

Freeman 

Harper's 

Independent 

Liberator 

Literary  Digest 

Nation 

New  Republic 

North  American  Review. 

Outlook 

Review  of  Reviews 

Saturday  Evening  Post .  . 

Scribner's 

Searchlight 

Survey 

World's  Work 


Total  number  issues  and  pages  analyzed 


9,247 

441,080 

107,776 

40,350 

60,000 

15,000 

'"95",896 

100,589 

40,000 

900,000 

28,960 

35,000 

22,008 

105,340 

172,552 

2,108,923 

97,748 

5,530 

13,686 

126,043 


2 
5 
6 
6 

4 
6 
5 
6 

24 

6 

14 

18 

20 

6 

24 

6 

5 

6 

6 

24 

6 


205 


270 
480 
864 

1,122 
580 
762 
110 
798 
600 
294 

1,176 
576 
400 
864 
936 
672 
600 
768 
120 
696 
558 


13,246 


After  considering  the  methods  of  measuring  linear  space,  counting  pages, 
and  counting  frequency  of  mention,  the  latter  was  employed  because  the 
scoring  is  simpler.    The  writer  assumed  that  the  topics  most  discussed  were 


232 


Department  of  Superintendence 


most  important.  The  method  of  reckoning  was  as  follows:  Each  maga- 
zine in  which  an  item  or  a  group  of  items  appeared  was  credited  with  one 
score.  Also  each  topic  was  credited  with  one  score.  A  similar  method  of 
scoring  was  used  in  tabulating  the  Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature. 
Findings.  These  tables  are  illustrative:  Table  34  shows  the  twenty 
most  frequently  mentioned  sub-topics  relating  to  all  phases  of  government, 
economics,  and  sociology.  Study  I  refers  to  the  analysis  of  the  twenty-one 
magazines  listed  in  Table  33;  and  Study  II  refers  to  the  analysis  of  the 
Readers'  Guide. 

TABLE  34.— TWENTY  MOST  FREQUENTLY  MENTIONED  SUB-TOPICS  OF 
THE  SOCIAL  SCIENCES 


Topics 

Frequencies 
from  Study  I, 

Frequencies 
from  Study  II 

235 

164 

159 

129 

111 

104 

99 

97 

87 

.76 

71 

68 

66 

66 

64 

64 

58 

58 

56 

55 

26 

1 

12 

9 

g 

0 

Expansion  and  imperialism 

7 

6 

2 

5 

7 

7 

Housing : 

3 

5 

4 

Freedom  of  speech 

3 

15 

Negro  problem 

Over  three  hundred  different  topics  are  classified  in  Table  34  with  the 
total  frequency  mention  under  Study  I  of  5095,  and  a  total  frequency 
mention  in  Study  II  of  720. 

From  these  topics  one  sees  that  there  is  a  wide  range  of  types  of  eco- 
nomic, sociological,  and  political  topics  to  be  included  in  a  course  of  civics 
if  one  accepts  the  theory  that  these  courses  are  valuable  in  giving  people 
the  necessary  background  to  read  understandingly  current  periodicals. 

The  great  difficulty  of  such  analyses  is  that  the  topics  overlap.  Many  of 
the  topics  are  so  broad  that  before  one  can  determine  effectively  what 
should  be  taught  much  more  refined  analysis  is  necessary.  They  do  suggest, 
however,  that  there  are  outstanding  problems  connected  with  many  of  these 
topics  that  might  well  form  the  core  of  a  new  organization  of  social  science 
materials. 

The  study  is  also  of  value  if  one  wishes  to  make  use  of  current  periodi- 
cals in  social  science  classes,  for  it  gives  one  relatively  objective  standards 
for  the  choice  of  topics  found  in  current  periodicals  to  be  used  as  a  basis 
for  class  discussion.  > 


The  Third  Yearbook 


233 


STUDY  NO.  6.  Sharon,  J.  A.  An  analysis  of  problems  by  the  news- 
paper-magazine method.  Summarized  briefly  by  Ernest  Horn  in  The  ap- 
plication of  research  to  making  a  course  of  study  in  history.  Twenty-second 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.  Part  II, 
1922,  pp.  242-243. 

Problem.    To  determine  important  problems  by  analysis  of  newspapers. 

Method.  Sharon  studied  two  weeks'  issues  of  each  of  nine  representa- 
tive newspapers  on  the  assumption  that  important  problems  will  find  a 
place  in  our  newspapers.  His  measures  were :  ( 1 )  The  number  of  arti- 
cles, and  (2)  total  length  or  amount  of  space  in  linear  inches. 

Table  35  reproduces  the  essential  type  of  topics  that  are  found  and  indi- 
cates the  number  of  articles  and  number  of  inches  in  linear  space  devoted 
to  them. 


TABLE  35.— SOCIAL  SCIENCE  TOPICS  FOUND  IN  NEWSPAPERS 


Topic 

Taxation 

Foreign  relations  (not  immigration) 

Suffrage 

Monopoly  and  legislation 

Public  service  commissions 

Liquor  and  prohibition 

Money  and  banking 

Employers  and  labor 

Pensions  (all  kinds) 

Workmen's  compensation 

Conservation  of  natural  resources . . 

Child  labor 

Miscellaneous 


Number  of 

Total  length 

articles 

in  linear  inches 

92 

1,058.00 

30 

701.75 

51 

559.75 

45 

551.75 

37 

450.50 

31 

339.50 

14 

186.00 

7 

102.50 

7 

88.00 

10 

78.75 

3 

42.00 

1 

2.80 

50 

760.75 

II.  Studies  of  Minimal  Essentials 
(a)     Studies  based  on  a  wide  range  of  objective  criteria. 

STUDY  NO.  7.  Rugg,  Harold  O.,  and  Hockett,  John.  Objective 
studies  in  map  location.  Social  Science  Monographs,  No.  1.  The  Lincoln 
School  of  Teachers  College,  New  York  City,  1924. 

Problem.  To  determine  the  relative  importance  in  contemporary  life 
of  map   (geographic)   locations  of  all  kinds. 

Method.  Many  objective  measures  of  importance  were  combined  to 
determine  rank  order  lists  of  cities,  regions,  rivers,  mountains,  countries, 
islands,  etc.  Map  locations  were  grouped  in  the  following  classes:  (1) 
Cities  of  the  United  States;  (2)  cities  of  the  world;  (3)  countries;  (4) 
sections  and  regions  within  or  overlapping  countries;  (5)  rivers;  (6)  moun- 
tains; (7)  islands;  (8)  bodies  of  water;  (9)  states  of  the  United  States; 
and  (10)  railroads,  steamship  routes,  industrial  areas,  agricultural  areas. 

The  following  are  the  criteria  which  were  used  to  determine  the  relative 
importance  of  the  many  map  locations  within  each  class  listed  above. 

1.  Population.  Used  as  one  criterion  for  determining  relative  im- 
portance of  cities,  both  of  the  United  States  and  foreign  countries. 


234  Department  of  Superintendence 

2.  Foreign  trade.  Total  exports  and  imports  averaged  for  several  years. 
Used  as  a  measure  for  the  commercial  importance  of  countries. 

3.  Bank  clearings.  A  measure  of  the  commercial  importance  of  the 
citier.  of  the  United  States.    Not  found  to  be  applicable  to  foreign  cities.  ' 

4.  Area.    Used  as  a  minor  measure  of  importance  of  countries. 

5.  Frequency  of  use  by  "frontier  thinkers"  in  critical  magazines.  A 
tabulation  was  made  of  every  reference  to  a  map  location  in  one  hundred 
issues,  of  the  following  critical  magazines,  during  the  period  November, 
1918,  to  April,  1924:  Our  World,  International  Interpreter,  New  Re- 
public, Nation,  Outlook,  Living  Age,  Manchester  Guardian  Weekly.  This 
criterion  was  applicable  to  all  classes  of  locations.  This  analysis  gave  two 
measures  of  relative  importance  of  locations.  First,  all  locations  in  each 
class  were  ranked  on  the  basis  of  the  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  issues 
in  which  they  were  mentioned.  Second,  the  gross  frequency  of  mention  of 
places  was  used  as  a  less  important  measure.  A  total  of  over  28,000  refer- 
ences to  map  locations  was  found. 

6.  Frequency  of  use  by  "frontier  thinkers"  in  critical  books.  A  tabula- 
tion was  made  of  every  reference  to  a  map  location  in  fifteen  recent,  out- 
standing books  dealing  with  world  affairs  and  problems.  Such  books  as 
the  following  were  used :  Bryce,  International  Relations;  Angell,  The 
Fruits  of  Victory;  Feuter,  World  History,  1815-1920;  Keynes,  Economic 
Consequences  of  the  Peace;  Eckel,  Coal,  Iron  and  War;  and  Bowman, 
The  New  World.  The  frequency  of  mention  and  the  space  devoted  to 
map  locations  were  used  to  determine  relative  importance  of  locations. 
This  criterion  was  found  to  be  applicable  to  all  classes  of  locations,  but  with 
varying  significance. 

7.  Number  of  articles  in  all  important  magazines.  The  number  of  arti- 
cles dealing  with  map  locations  in  four  volumes  of  the  Readers'  Guide  and 
International  Index  was  tabulated  and  the  various  locations  ranked  in 
order  of  importance  on  this  criterion.  The  years  1919,  1920,  1922,  and 
1923  were  covered  in  this  analysis.  This  measure  applied  to  all  classes  of 
location.  A  total  of  20,000  articles  dealt  with  1086  different  map  lo- 
cations. 

Table  36. — The  First  Thirty  Cities  of  the  United  States 
Ranked  in  Order  of  Importance 

1.  New  York,  N.  Y.  11.  Cleveland,   Ohio.  22.  Denver,  Colo. 

2.  Chicago,  111.  12.  New  Orleans,  La.  23.  Portland,  Ore. 

3.  Philadelphia,  Pa.  13.  Baltimore,  Md.  24.  Omaha,  Nebr. 

4.  Boston,  Mass.  14.  Kansas  City,  Mo.  25.  Atlanta,  Ga. 

5.  San  Francisco,  15.  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  26.  Newark,  N.  J. 

Calif.  16.  Seattle,  Wash.  27.  Memphis,  Tenn. 

6.  Detroit,  Mich.  17.  Minneapolis,  Minn.  28.  Columbus,  Ohio. 

7.  St.  Louis,  Mo.  18.  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  29.  Toledo,  Ohio. 

8.  Washington,    D.    C.    19.  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  30.  Louisville,  Ky. 

9.  Pittsburgh,  Pa.            20.  Milwaukee,   Wis. 
10.  Los  Angeles,  Calif.  21.  Indianapolis,  Ind. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


235 


8.  Washburne's  rank  order  list.  Use  was  made  of  the  investigation  of 
reference  to  historical  and  geographic  facts  found  in  popular  magazines 
and  newspapers,  made  by  Superintendent  Washburne,  summarized  in 
Study  No.  14,  on  page  251.  All  map  locations  were  selected  from  the 
Washburne  rank  order  list,  and  reranked  for  use  in  this  study. 

After  weights  were  assigned  to  each  criterion  in  each  class  of  locations, 
final  rank  order  lists  were  determined  for  each  class  of  locations,  examples 
of  which  are  given  below. 

Findings.  The  following  tables  give  a  part  of  the  rank  order  list  for 
several  classes  of  map  locations,  as  determined  by  the  Rugg-Hockett  study. 


Table  37.— Rank  Order  List  of  Fifty  Most  Important  Foreign  Cities 


1.  Paris 

2.  London 

3.  Berlin 

4.  Vienna 

5.  Rome 

6.  Moscow 

7.  Constantinople 

8.  Petrograd 

9.  Tokio 

10.  Peking 

11.  Brussels 

12.  Manchester 

13.  Versailles 

14.  Athens 

15.  Budapest 

16.  Warsaw 

17.  Shanghai 


18.  Liverpool 

19.  Hamburg 

20.  Madrid 

21.  Smyrna 

22.  Munich 

23.  Dublin 

24.  Buenos  Aires 

25.  The  Hague 

26.  Bagdad 

27.  Milan 

28.  Mexico    City 

29.  Geneva 

30.  Leipsig 

31.  Genoa 

32.  Toronto 

33.  Copenhagen 

34.  Vilna 


35.  Prague 

36.  Venice 

37.  Glasgow 

38.  Belfast 

39.  Stockholm 

40.  Vladivostok 

41.  Frankfort 

42.  Angora 

43.  Mosul 

44.  Jerusalem 

45.  Riga 

46.  Montreal 

47.  Singapore 

48.  Hongkong 

49.  Barcelona 

50.  Calcutta 


Table  38. — The  First  Thirty  Countries  of  the  World 
In  Order  of  Importance 

(Only   countries   which    are   members   of   the   League   of   Nations   or    eligible   to 
membership  are  included.) 


1.  United  States 

2.  France 

3.  Germany 

4.  China 

5.  Great  Britain 

6.  Russia 

7.  Japan 

8.  Italy 

9.  India 
10.  Turkey 


11.  Canada 

12.  Poland 

13.  Egypt 

14.  Greece 

15.  Spain 

16.  Belgium 

17.  Ireland 

18.  Mexico 

19.  Rumania 

20.  Hungary 


21.  Austria 

22.  Czecho-Slovakia 

23.  Australia 

24.  Netherlands 

25.  Jugoslavia 

26.  Bulgaria 

27.  Switzerland 

28.  Persia 

29.  Brazil 
30.  Sweden 


b.  Studies  that  contribute  data  concerning  what  facts  in  history, 
geography  and  civics  are  needed  in  order  to  read  periodicals  and  books  in- 
telligently. 

STUDY  NO.  8.  Bagley,  W.  C.  The  determination  of  minimum  es- 
sentials in  elementary  geography  and  history.  Fourteenth  Yearbook  of  the 
National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.     Part  I,  1915,  pp.  131-139. 


236 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Table  39. — The  Forty  Most  Important  Sections  and  Regions  of  the  World 

Arranged  in  Order  of  Importance 
(Countries  which  are  not  independent  political  units  are  not  included.) 


1.  Europe 

2.  England 

3.  America 

4.  Africa 

5.  Asia 

6.  South   America 

7.  Balkan   States 

8.  Prussia 

9.  Morocco 

10.  Siberia 

11.  Mesopotamia 

12.  Far  East 

13.  Armenia 


14.  Near  East 

15.  Alsace-Lorraine 

16.  Serbia 

17.  Macedonia 

18.  Asia  Minor 

19.  Arabia 

20.  Manchuria 

21.  Albania 

22.  Central  America 

23.  Korea 

24.  Algeria 

25.  Syria  ' 

26.  Ukraine 


27.  South  Africa 

28.  Palestine 

29.  Shantung 

30.  North  America 

31.  Galicia 

32.  Silesia 

33.  Bavaria 

34.  Lorraine 

35.  Bosnia 

36.  Latin  America 

37.  Soudan 

38.  Ulster 

39.  East  Africa 

40.  Bohemia 


Table  40. — The  Twenty  Rivers  of  Greatest  Importance 
In  Order  of  Rank 


1. 

Rhine 

8. 

Yangste 

15. 

Amazon 

2. 

Nile 

9. 

Saar 

16. 

Congo 

3. 

Danube 

10. 

Jordan 

17. 

Somme 

5. 

Mississippi 

11. 

Thames 

18. 

Colorado 

5. 

Hudson 

12. 

Tigris 

19. 

Clyde 

6. 

Volga 

13. 

Scheldt 

20. 

Amur 

7. 

Euphrates 

14. 

St.  Lawrence 

Table  41. — The  Ten  Most  Important  Mountains 
In  Order  of  Rank 


1.  Alps 

2.  Caucasus 

3.  Rocky 

4.  Ural 


5.  Carpathian 

6.  Andes 

7.  Everest 


8.  Appalachian 

9.  Himalaya 
10.  Mt.  Blanc 


Table  42. — The  Twenty-five  Most  Important 
Bodies  of  Water  in  Order  of  Rank 


1. 

Pacific  Ocean 

9.  Bosphorus 

18. 

Kiel  Canal 

2. 

Atlantic 

10.  Suez  Canal 

19. 

Niagara  Falls 

3. 

Mediterranean 

11.  Panama  Canal 

20. 

Caspian  Sea 

4. 

Dardanelles 

12.  Great  Lakes 

21. 

Persian   Gulf 

5. 

Black  Sea 

13.  North  Sea 

22. 

Hudson  Bay 

6. 

Adriatic 

14.  Caribbean  Sea 

23. 

Indian  Ocean 

7. 

Baltic 

15.  "The  Straits" 

24. 

Lake  Superior 

8. 

Arctic 

16.  Aegean  Sea 

17.  Red  Sea 

25. 

Gulf  of  Finland 

Table  43.- 

—The  Twenty-one  Most  Important  Island 

Groups  in  Order  of  Rank 

1. 

Philippines 

8.  Long  Island 

15. 

Crete 

2. 

West  Indies 

9.  Sakhalin 

16. 

Sardinia 

3. 

Hawaiian 

10.  New  Guinea 

17. 

Virgin  Islands 

4. 

East   Indian 

11.  Cyprus 

18. 

Heligoland 

5. 

Porto  Rico 

12.  Malta 

19. 

Guam 

6. 

Sicily 

13.  Formosa 

20. 

Aland  Islands 

7. 

Samoan  Islands 

14.  Manhattan 

21. 

Madagascar 

The  Third  Yearbook  237 

Problem.  The  use  of  newspapers  and  magazines  as  a  standard  for  de- 
termining the  kind  of  geographical  information  that  the  school  should 
teach.  The  theory  adopted  was  that  one  important  way  in  which  people 
may  use  geographical  information  is  to  enable  them  to  interpret  more 
adequately  references  to  geographical  material  in  their  reading  of  periodi- 
cal literature.  Specifically,  the  problem  was  to  find  by  "samplings"  of 
newspapers  and  magazines  the  types  of  references  and  the  frequencies  of 
mention  to  geographical  material. 

Method.  Samplings  of  such  magazines  as  the  Outlook  and  the  Literary 
Digest  for  a  period  of  seven  years  ending  with  1913  were  taken.  Two 
methods  of  counting  the  references  were  tried.  First,  counting  one  for  each 
term  such  as  the  name  of  a  place  or  each  statement  with  a  geographical  or 
historical  content.  Second,  taking  each  article  as  a  unit  in  which  the  refer- 
ence occurs  in  so  far  as  it  concerns  a  certain  type  of  reference.  Dr.  Bagley 
says  that  actual  investigations  show  that  the  latter  method  was  to  be  pre- 
ferred. 

Findings.  Table  44  shows  the  percentage  of  2237  references  to  various 
types  of  geographical  and  historical  material  in  eighteen  journals. 

Table  44. — Percentage  Distribution  of  Geographical  and  Historical  Material 
in  Eighteen  Journals 

Topics  .  Per  cent 

References  to  facts  of  location,  size,  direction,  etc.,  which  may  be  assumed 

to  require  for  their  understanding  a  knowledge  of  "place  and  location" 

geography    53.5 

References   to  political   divisions   and   facts   of   government  which   may  be 

assumed  to  require  a  knowledge  of  "political"  geography '. 25.1 

References  to  industries,  commerce,  products,  etc.,  which  may  be  assumed 

to  require  a  knowledge  of  "commercial"  geography 5.8 

References    to    people,    customs,    religion,    education,    etc.,    which    may    be 

assumed  to  require  a  knowledge  of  "social"  geography 4.8 

References  to  places  as  scenes  of  historical  events,  which  may  be  assumed 

to  require  a  knowledge  of  "historical"  geography 1.7 

Other  references  primarily  of  local  or  transitory  interest 8.9 

The  relative  emphasis  to  continents  with  North  America  arbitrarily 
assigned  100  was: 

North  America   100  Africa   4 

Europe    73  South  America    3 

Asia     13  Australia    1 

The  relative  frequency  of  mention  to  principal  European  countries, 
England  being  given  the  arbitrary  value  of  100,  was: 

England   100  Italy    32 

France     80  Turkey      30 

Germany    70  Austria-Hungary    24 

Russia     35  Spain     22 


238 


Department  of  Superintendence 


The  relative  ratings  of  cities,  New  York  being  assigned  arbitrarily  100, 
was: 


New  York   100 

London    31 

Boston  27 

Washington     27 

Chicago    26 

Paris    26 


Philadelphia    20 

Berlin    IS 

Rome  12 

Constantinople    12 

St    Petersburg    7 

Vienna    7 


The  relative  importance  of  rivers,  seas  and  gulfs  and  straits  in  order  of 
rank  was  as  follows: 


Rivers 

Seas  and  Gulfs 

Straits 

Mississippi            > 

Mediterranean 

Dardanelles 

Hudson 

iEgean 

Bosporus 

Ohio 

Mexico 

Magellan 

Missouri 

Black 

Bering 

Rhine 

Adriatic 

Nile 

Marmora 

Danube 

Red 

St.  Lawrence 

Caspian 

Potomac 

La  Plata 

Seine 

Niagara 

Rio  Grande 

Columbia 

Amazon 

Congo 

In  a  similar  way  historical  references  were  tabulated,  although  they 
were  mentioned  much  less  frequently  than  geographical  references. 

The  frequency  of  reference  to  persons  in  American  history,  Lincoln  be- 
ing given  the  arbitrary  value  of  100,  was  as  follows: 


Lincoln    100 

Washington  66 

Jefferson 51 

Jackson     24 

Grant     20 

Clay     20 


Cleveland     17 

McKinley  17 

Webster     13 

Franklin 10 

J.  Q.  Adams 10 

Buchanan  10 


References  to  wars  were  more  frequent  than  to  any  other  type  of  his- 
torical events,  the  Civil  War  holding  first  place. 

References  to  civic  material  in  periodicals  in  order  of  frequency  of 
reference  were  as  follows:  (1)  The  Constitution,  (2)  amendments  to  the 
Constitution,  and   (3)   the  Constitutional  Convention. 

The  Departments  in  order  of  frequency  of  reference  were  as  follows: 
state,  interior,  attorney-general's  office,  treasury,  war,  post-office,  com- 
merce, and  agriculture. 

In  one  rather  "popular"  magazine,  a  sampling  of  ten  years  shows  that 
Napoleon   is  most  frequently   mentioned,   but  other  historical   characters 


The  Third  Yearbook  239 

such  as  Caesar,  Louis  XIV,  Jeanne  d'Arc,  and  Luther  are  also  frequently 
mentioned.  Dr.  Bagley  comments  that  in  this  magazine  analysis,  Caesar 
is  referred  to  more  frequently  than  any  American  character  besides  Lin- 
coln, Washington,  Roosevelt;  Jeanne  d'Arc  as  often  as  Cleveland,  and 
Napoleon  more  frequently  than  any  living  political  or  military  character. 

The  writer  of  this  report  ventures  to  suggest  that  certain  aspects  of 
European  history  are  mentioned  with  sufficient  frequency  to  cause  one  to 
consider  their  inclusion  in  the  socially  valuable  history  to  be  taught  in  the 
schools.  The  most  important  in  order  of  frequency  of  reference  are:  The 
Renaissance,  the  French  Revolution,  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  Elizabethan 
period. 

This  is  a  pioneer  study  that  attempts  to  "sample"  periodical  litera- 
ture in  order  to  obtain  data  concerning  the  facts  in  history  and  geography 
that  one  is  likely  to  encounter  in  what  is  probably  the  preeminent  sources 
of  information  of  the  average  adult  "layman" — namely,  newspapers  and 
magazines. 

However,  there  are  limitations  to  this  type  of  study  as  Dr.  Bagley  points 
out  in  an  article  in  School  and  Home  Education  for  December,  1914.  His 
investigation  showed  that  certain  newspapers  and  magazines  with  large 
circulations  had  relatively  few  references  to  geography  and  history ; 
whereas,  those  newspapers  and  magazines  "that  related  and  discussed  the 
events  and  problems  of  the  day  on  a  broad  and  comprehensive  plane, 
with  interpretations  and  references  that  involved  for  their  understanding  a 
certain  capacity  of  formal  knowledge,  appealed  in  general  to  a  smaller 
clientele  and  had  in  consequence  a  limited  circulation."  In  other  words,  one 
might  argue  that  the  level  upon  which  newspapers  make  their  appeal  de- 
pends much  upon  the  extent  to  which  formal  education  has  benefited  their 
readers.  The  belief  that  communication  of  ideas  and  ideals  in  a  democracy, 
if  we  give  all  the  people  the  tools  of  knowledge,  will  be  adequately  taken 
care  of  through  newspapers  and  other  forms  of  current  literature  should 
be  scrutinized  in  much  more  detail. 

The  use  of  allusions  in  several  studies  in  this  section,  in  all  likelihood,  is 
but  one  means  to  be  utilized  in  checking  the  socially  valuable  basic  facts 
needed  for  an  understanding  of  present-day  society.  This  method  should 
be  further  explored. 

STUDY  NO.  9.  Charters,  W.  W.  A  short  cut  in  tabulation.  Sum- 
marized in  Curriculum  construction.     New  York,  Macmillan  Co.,  1923. 

Problem.  To  determine  items  of  place  geography  to  be  taught  by  an 
analysis  of  random  samplings  of  newspapers  and  magazines. 

Method.  The  first  number  for  October  of  the  Literary  Digest  in  alter- 
nate years  from  1899  to  1913,  inclusive,  was  examined  for  items  in  place 
geography.  Advertisements,  maps,  and  lists  of  places  were  omitted,  but 
cartoons  were  included,  "because  they  are  essential  parts  of  reading  matter 
widely  used  to  make  ideas  clear." 


240 


Department  of  Superintendence 


In  the  analysis,  geographic  names,  such  as  England,  were  included  and 
also  the  names  of  people  as  English  in  order  "to  obtain  a  gauge  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  country,  mention  of  the  activities  of  the  inhabitants  was  as 
important  as  mention  of  the  country." 

"Every  reference  was  tabulated,  in  contra-distinction  to  one  reference  per 
paragraph  or  article  as  is  the  rule  in  some  studies.  This  was  done  because 
of  the  effort  to  obtain  a  complete  analysis.  Places  of  the  most  minute  sort, 
as  the  Arc  de  Triomphe  in  Paris,  were  included.  Rivers,  mountain  ranges, 
lakes,  bays,  channels,  gulfs,  seas,  and  oceans  were  not  included." 


TABLE  45. 


FREQUENCY  OF  MENTION  OF  CONTINENTS  IN  SELECTED 
ISSUES  OF  LITERARY  DIGEST 


Continent 

Frequency 
of  mention 

Continent 

Frequency 
of  mention 

Continent 

Frequency 
of  mention 

3,112 
190 

Europe 

South  America.  . 

1,835 
38 

597 

Africa 

Australia 

28 

TABLE   46. 


-FREQUENCY   OF   MENTION    OF   COUNTRIES   IN    SELECTED 
ISSUES  OF  LITERARY  DIGEST 


Country 

Frequency 
of  mention 

Country 

Frequency 
of  mention 

Country 

Frequency 
of  mention 

United  States 

2,712 
205 
121 
78 
57 
34 
23 

British  Isles .... 

Japan 

Italy 

India 

Transvaal 

Spain 

Greece 

725 
202 
108 
73 
54 
33 
23 

Germany 

257 
136 

Russia 

Canada 

Russia 

Orange  Free  States. . 
Congo  Free  State.  .  . 

Turkey 

Turkey 

Austro-Hungary 

82 
61 
43 
32 

One  notes  by  comparing  the  samplings  of  Bagley  and  Charters  a  marked 
resemblance  in  the  relative  frequencies  of  mention  of  the  principal  con- 
tinents and  countries  of  the  world.  Such  studies  with  other  studies  listed  in 
this  section  contribute  impersonal  evidence  upon  the  crucial  problem  of 
relative  emphasis  to  minimal  essential  facts. 

STUDY  NO.  10.  Horn,  Ernest.  Possible  defects  in  the  present  con- 
tent of  American  history  as  taught  in  the  schools.  The  Sixteenth  Yearbook 
of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I.  1917.  pp. 
156-172. 

Problem.  To  examine  this  value  of  history — namely,  that  the  chief 
purpose  of  teaching  history  in  the  elementary  school  is  to  make  pupils 
more  intelligent  with  respect  to  crucial  activities  and  problems  of  present- 
day  life  or,  as  Dr.  Horn  continues,  "this  study  is  planned  to  determine  what 
the  content  of  the  course  of  study  in  history  would  be  if  all  history  which 
is  not  essential  to  such  intelligence  were  eliminated  and  if  items  which  are 
essential  but  which  do  not  at  present  appear  in  the  course  of  study  were 
added." 


The  Third  Yearbook 


241 


Method.  Dr.  Horn's  hypothesis  was  that  he  could  secure  by  analysis  of 
books  dealing  with  more  crucial  modern  problems  at  least  the  sort  of  history 
or  reference  to  historical  material  which  these  authors  deemed  essential  to 
the  understanding  of  modern  problems.  His  point  of  view  was  a  service 
point  of  view — that  is,  to  determine  what  contemporary  historians  made  use 
of  in  their  discussion  of  present-day  affairs. 

He,  therefore,  asked  the  heads  of  the  departments  of  political  science, 
sociology,  and  economics  of  the  State  University  of  Iowa  to  make  out  a  list 
of  such  problems  and  to  list  the  books.  Twenty-seven  books  were  listed 
and  analyzed,  among  them  being  such  books  as:  Adams,  Science  of  Finance; 
Adams  and  Sumner,  Labor  problems;  Johnson,  American  railway  transpor- 
tation; Seager,  Social  insurance. 

The  twenty-seven  books  were  then  analyzed  for  the  six  following  things 
according  to  the  outline  used  by  Langlois  and  Seignobos,  Introduction  to 
the  study  of  history,     pp.  234-235. 

1.  The  percentage  of  historical  material  in  each  book 

2.  The  specific  and  approximate  dates  referred  to 

3.  The  historical  characters  referred  to 

4.  The  frequency  of  reference  to  each  period  of  history.  The  periods  in 
this  study  were  made  to  correspond  to  the  study  made  by  W.  C. 
Bagley  and  Harold  O.  Rugg — The  content  of  American  history  as 
taught  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 

5.  The  frequency  of  reference  to  each  of  the  more  important  phases  of 
history 

6.  Movements,  events,  conditions,  problems,  etc. 

Thirty-eight  topics  similar  to  the  content  of  the  twenty-seven  books  were 
also  used  in  the  analysis  of  articles  in  the  International  Encyclopedia.  One 
hundred  forty-two  such  articles  were  analyzed. 

The  topics  examined  in  this  study  are  as  follows : 


Accident  insurance 

Ballot 

Bank,   Banking 

Child  labor 

Crime 

Civil-service  reform 

Conservation 

Coast   defense 

Democracy 

Divorce 

Education 

Efficiency 

Fire  insurance 

Family 


Feminism 

Hygiene 

Initiative,  Referendum, 

etc. 
Interstate  commerce 
Life  insurance 
Labor 

Merchant   marine 
Monroe  Doctrine 
Milk 
Negro 
Regulation  of  public 

utilities 


Pauperism 

Philippines 

Prisons 

Pure  food 

Roads 

Rural   credits 

Railways 

Socialism 

Tariff 

Temperance 

Transportation 

Tax 

Woman's  suffrage 


242 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Findings.  Table  47  shows  the  percentage  of  references  devoted  to 
each  period  in  the  problem  books,  in  the  International  Encyclopedia  and  in 
the  elementary  school  histories  as  analyzed  by  Bagley  and  Rugg. 

TABLE  47.— PERCENTAGE  OF  HISTORICAL  REFERENCES  DEVOTED  TO 

VARIOUS  PERIODS 


Period 

Books 

International 
Encyclopedia 

Elementary 
Texts 

3.7 
0.67 
2.0 
3.5 
6.0 
11.0 
74.0 

0.1 
2.5 
3.8 
1.8 
4.7 
85.7 

8.27 

19.62 

1764-1783 

13.69 

1784-1812 

14.17 

1812-1861 : 

21.00 

1861-1916 -. 

24.67 

The  Study  does  not  indicate  the  per  cent  of  historical  material  in  each  book. 

The  specific  and  approximate  dates  referred  to — one  hundred  ninety- 
four  separate  dates  were  found  in  the  books  and  one  hundred  ninety-nine 
in  the  International;  two  hundred  fifty-three  different  dates  in  the  two 
lists. 

Reference  to  persons.  The  frequency  of  mention  to  the  persons  in  the 
books  and  encyclopedia  articles  combined  is  as  follows : 

Roosevelt     284 

Smith,    Adam 214 

Mill,    J.    S...« 174 

Malthus    74 

Napoleon    64 

Marx,    Karl 59 

Owen,    Robert 44 

Gompers    41 

Ricardo    38 

Wilson    30 

Washington    29 

Louis    XIV 29 

Rousseau   26 

George,    Henry 25 


Grant,  U.  S 18 

Pitt,   Wm 16 

Wells,  H.  G 16 

Gladstone 16 

Wagner,   A 15 

Webb   14 

Lassalle    14 

Napoleon   III . 12 

William   III 10 

Gallatin    10 

Jackson,    Andrew 10 

Montaigne    10 

Hamilton,    Alexander 9 

Wright,  CD 7 


Jefferson,    Thomas 24       Shaw,    Bernard 6 

Table  48  shows  the  distribution  of  references  to  political,  military,  and 
social  and  economic  history  in  these  books  on  modern  problems  and  ency- 
clopedia articles  as  well  as  in  modern  history  textbooks  and  the  opinions  of 
a  proper  distribution  between  the  three  by  the  committee  of  eight. 

TABLE  48.— DISTRIBUTION  OF  REFERENCES  TO  POLITICAL,  MILITARY 
AND  SOCIAL  AND  ECONOMIC  HISTORY 


Source 

Political 

Military 

Social  and 
economic 

33.0 

42.0 
18.7 
37.0 

30.0 
40.0 

4.7 

1.7       . 

37 

18 

78 

60 

The  Third  Yearbook  243 


The  most  important  interpretation  to  be  deduced  from  the  study  of 
these  tables  is  that  the  historical  material  that  writers  of  books  and  arti- 
cles on  modern  problems  chiefly  make  use  of  is  relatively  recent.  The 
references  are  principally  to  dates  and  persons  since  the  Civil  War. 

While  Dr.  Horn  points  out  that  we  should  have  a  larger  number  of 
books  analyzed,  perhaps  one  hundred,  and  also  a  larger  number  of  articles 
in  the  encyclopedias,  he  does  say,  however,  that  the  returns  from  the 
books  and  articles  analyzed  are  so  consistent  that  the  data  would  probably 
be  unmodified  except  in  minor  items. 

Moreover,  he  points  out  that  while  the  investigators  scoring  these 
books  for  dates,  persons,  etc.,  may  have  made  certain  mistakes,  neverthe- 
less, because  each  improved  with  practice  he  asserts  that  the  reports  repre- 
sent "a  very  close  approximation  to  the  material  actually  in  the  books  and 
articles  under  these  headings."  A  variation  from  true  description  of  the 
data  is  probably  not  more  than  five  or  ten  per  cent. 

Summarizing,  Dr.  Horn  does  not  attempt  to  answer  the  question  as  to 
the  complete  content  of  the  course  but  he  does  say  that  he  has  attempted  to 
investigate  the  implications  of  the  following  assertion,  namely,  "that  his- 
tory should  render  pupils  more  intelligent  with  regard  to  modern  condi- 
tions, and  problems  and  activities.  If  one  assumes  ( 1 )  that  this  is  the  func- 
tion of  history,  (2)  that  the  method  of  research  here  followed  is  satisfac- 
tory, (3)  that  sufficient  data  have  been  collected,  then  there  seems  no 
escape  from  the  conclusion  that  present  elementary  and  high  school  courses 
of  study  in  history  are  in  very  serious  need  of  reconstruction." 

Obviously,  this  does  not  imply  that  there  are  not  other  functions  of  his- 
tory from  which  one  could  justify  the  inclusion  of  certain  material  that 
does  not  seem  to  be  justified  from  the  examination  of  the  data  in  this  study. 
Dr.  Horn,  himself,  says  that  while  the  data  suggest  emphases  to  various 
items,  they  do  not  indicate  what  the  organization  of  the  course  should  be. 
Hence,  we  should  keep  in  mind  that  we  need  other  methods  of  attack  ir. 
order  to  determine  additional  values  of  the  material  taught  in  American 
history. 

STUDY  NO.  ii.  Marston,  L.  R.;  McKown,  H.  C;  and  Bagley, 
W.  C.  The  method  of  determining  misplacements  of  emphasis  in  seventh 
and  eighth  grade  history.  Seventeenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society 
for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I.     1918.    pp.  90-96. 

Problem.  To  determine  more  "precisely  some  of  the  misplacements 
of  emphasis  in  the  present  day  and  relatively  recent  teaching  of  elementary 
history."  It  was  a  sequel  to  the  study  made  by  W.  C.  Bagley  and  Harold 
O.  Rugg  entitled  The  content  of  United  States  history  as  taught  in  seventh 
and  eighth  grades,  that  is,  both  studies  were  concerned  with  what  are  the 
minimal  essentials  as  revealed  by  analyses  of  elementary  school  history 
textbooks. 


244 


Department  of  Superintendence 


The  following  criteria  were  used  in  measuring  present  practices: 

"1.  Are  the  relative  emphases  given  to  events  in  the  textbooks  consistent  with 
the  emphases  given  to  the  same  events  in  standard  books  of  reference? 

"2.  Are  the  relative  emphases  given  by  the  textbooks  consistent  with  the  judg- 
ment of  students  of  history  regarding  the  events  that  should  be  emphasized? 

"3.  Are  the  relative  emphases  given  by  the  textbooks  consistent  with  the  need 
for  historical  knowledge  in  interpreting  current  discussions  of  national  problems 
as  these  are  revealed  in  periodical  literature?" 

This  particular  study  by  Marston,  McKown,  and  Bagley  was  limited 
to  one  type  of  analysis  of  school  histories — the  names  of  persons  given 
prominence  by  twenty-five  elementary  textbooks  in  their  treatment  of  the 
period  between  1765  to  1865  in  American  history.  These  names  are  re- 
ferred to  in  the  Bagley-Rugg  study  under  the  caption,  "The  Hall  of 
Fame." 

Method.  The  frequency  of  mention  of  these  names  in  "The  Hall  of 
Fame"  was  assumed  to  be  a  rating  of  the  importance  of  these  persons  in 
American  history. 

To  check  these  a  rating  on  each  of  the  three  criteria  above  was  used. 

1.  The  "Encyclopedia  Ratings."  Such  encyclopedias  as  the  Britannica, 
The  New  International,  Appleton's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Biography, 
Harper's  Encyclopedia  of  American  History  were  used. 

2.  The  "Historian's  Ratings."  The  lists,  both  civil  and  military,  in 
the  "Hall  of  Fame"  were  sent  to  two  hundred  and  five  teachers  and  stu- 
dents of  history  in  American  schools  and  universities,  who  were  asked  to 
rank  these  in  their  order  of  relative  importance.  Thirty-three  replies  were 
used. 

TABLE  49.— RANKING  OF  THE  FIRST  TWENTY-FIVE  MEN  PROMINENT 
IN  CIVIL  LIFE  BETWEEN  1765  AND  1865 


Names 

Amalgamated 
ranking 

25  textbooks 

8  encyclo- 
pedias 

33  histo- 
rians 

4  magazines 

Lincoln 

1 

2.5 

2.5 

4 

5 

6 

7.5 

7.5 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23.5 
23;5 
25 

1 

2 

3 
10.5 

4 

7 

8 
14 

5 

9 

6 
10.5 
14 

20.5 
16.5 
18.5 
14 
12 
16.5 
18.5 
20.5 
24.5 
22.5 
24.5 
22.5 

1 

4 

2 

3 

8 

5 

10 

7 

6 

9 

11 

12 

14 

15 

20 

13 

22 

21 

18 

19 

16 

23 

24 

17 

25 

2 

1 

3 

6 

S 

4 

9 

5 
11 
12 

7 
17 
10 
18 
15 
21 
20 
16 
13 
22 
19 
14 
25 
24 
23, 

1 
3 
2 

4 

Andrew  Jackson .  . 

Hamilton 

Clay 

5 

9.5 

6 

7 

John  Adams 

J.  Q.  Adams 

12.5 
9.5 

17 

8 

17 

11 

S.  A.  Douglas .... 
Van  Buren 

14.5 
14.5 
12.5 
23 

Samuel  Adams .  .  . 
Tyler 

25 
20 

Polk 

19 

23 

17 

W.  H.  Harrison. .  . 
Taylor 

23 

21 

The  Third  Yearbook 


245 


3.  The  "Magazines'  Ratings."  "Samplings"  from  the  files  of  the  fol- 
lowing four  magazines — the  Atlantic  Monthly,  twenty  issues;  The  Nation, 
seventy-eight  issues;  Colliers,  thirty-eight  issues;  Saturday  Evening  Post, 
twenty  issues,  for  a  period  of  ten  years  (1904-1913)  were  read  and  fre- 
quencies of  mention  under  the  civil  and  military  lists  were  constructed. 
The  "samplings"  were  distributed,  so  that  each  year  was  represented  by 
approximately  the  same  number  of  issues.  Each  name  was  credited  with 
only  one  reference  for  each  article  in  which  it  appeared. 

Findings.  Table  49  shows  the  ranking  of  the  first  twenty-five  men 
prominent  in  civil  life  between  1765  and  1865,  according  to  the  amalga- 
mated ranking,  to  the  twenty-five  textbooks,  to  the  eight  encyclopedias,  to 
the  thirty-three  historians,  and  to  the  four  magazines. 

Table  50  shows  the  rankings  of  men  prominent  in  military  and  naval 
affairs  between  1765  and  1865  according  to  the  same  standards  as  in 
Table  49. 


TABLE  50.- 


-RANKING  OF  MEN  PROMINENT  IN  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL 
AFFAIRS  BETWEEN  1765  AND  1865 


Names 


Amalgamated 
ranking 


25  textbooks 

6  encyclo- 

33 histo- 

4 magazines 

pedias 

rians 

3 

1 

2 

1 

1 

4 

1 

3 

2 

3 

3 

2 

4 

2 

4 

6.5 

6 

7 

8 

4.5 

12.5 

10 

5 

8 

9 

0 

19 

11 

12.5 

6.5 

1 

18.5 

17 

13 

9 

9.5 

23.5 

9 

11 

6.5 

14.5 

11 

10 

14.5 

7 

15 

12 

18.5 

5 

14 

16 

18.5 

23.5 

6.5 

6 

23 

11 

18.5 

17 

13 

23.5 

21 

14 

4.5 

14.5 

12 

15 

23 

23.5 

18.5 

18 

9.5 

10 

18.5 

17 

13 

18 

20 

13 

23 

8 

24 

21 

23 

19 

16 

23 

23 

23.5 

18.5 

18 

23 

20.5 

23 

25 

23 

20.5 

23 

25 

23 

Grant 

Washington 

Lee 

Sherman 

McClellan 

"Stonewall"  Jack- 
son   

Arnold 

Greene 

Sheridan 

A.  Jackson 

Scott 

J.  E.  Johnson .... 

Cornwallis 

Farragut 

Burgoyne 

Meade 

Taylor 

Hooker 

Clinton 

Thomas 

Howe 

Schuyler 

W.  H.  Harrison. .  . 

Early 

Gage 


10.5 

10.5 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18.5 

18.5 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 


The  displacements  of  textbooks'  civil  rankings  of  four  places  or  more 
from  the  amalgamated  rankings  are  as  follows : 

Displacement 

A.  Textbooks  apparently  overemphasize  the  importance  of 

Patrick    Henry    6  places 

Madison    5  places 

John  Adams    4  places 

B.  Textbooks  apparently  underemphasize  the  importance  of 

Franklin    6.5  places 

Webster    6.5  places 

Jefferson    Davis    6.5  places 


246  Department  of  Superintendence 


The  displacements  of  textbooks'  military  rankings  of  four  places  or  more 
from  amalgamated  rankings  are  as  follows: 

Displacement 

A.  Textbooks    apparently   overemphasize  the   importance   of 

Howe     13       places 

Clinton    8.5  places 

Cornwallis   8       places 

J.    E.   Johnston 5       places 

Burgoyne    4       places 

B.  Textbooks  apparently  underemphasize  the  importance  of 

A.    Jackson 13       places 

Farragut    9.5  places 

Sheridan 8       places 

Meade    7.5  places 

"Stonewall"  Jackson   6.5   places 

Hooker    5       places 

Greene .  4.5  places 

Scott 4      places 

The  study  shows  more  of  a  tendency  to  overemphasize  or  underemphasize 
the  importance  of  military  persons  due  to  the  tendency  in  the  past  perhaps 
to  stress  military  history  than  to  overemphasize  or  underemphasize  treat- 
ment of  political  affairs. 

STUDY  NO.  12.  Swisher,  J.  A.  The  historical  information  essential 
for  the  intelligent  understanding  of  civic  problems.  Seventeenth  Yearbook 
of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.  Parti.  1918.  pp.  81- 
89.  (Summary  of  unpublished  Dissertation  Ph.  D.  State  Univ.  of  Iowa, 
Iowa  City,  Iowa.) 

Problem.  What  history  is  most  necessary  to  the  intelligent  under- 
standing of  modern  political  problems,  conditions  and  activities  ? 

Method.  This  study  is  based  on  the  theory,  "that  if  a  representative 
list  of  the  more  crucial  modern  problems  could  be  secured,  and  if  among 
the  books  dealing  with  such  problems,  those  be  selected  which  give  the 
clearest  statement  of  that  problem,  it  might  be  expected  that  these  books 
would  contain  at  least  the  sort  of  history,  or  amount  of  historical  reference 
which,  in  the  judgment  of  the  authors,  is  essential  to  a  proper  understanding 
of  the  modern  problems  that  are  discussed."  Members  of  the  Department 
of  Political  Science  at  the  State  University  of  Iowa  were  asked  to  list 
books  which  deal  in  a  representative  way  with  modern  problerris. 

Twenty-two  books  were  given  and  were  used  as  a  basis  for  Swisher's 
study.  Examples  of  these  books  are  the  following:  Adams,  Science  of 
Finance;  Fairchild,  Immigration ;  Haynes,  Child  labor;  and  Jenks,  The 
trust  problem. 

Also  twenty-two  articles  of  similar  material  were  checked  in  the  Cyclo- 
pedia of  American  Government. 

The  material  was  analyzed  for  four  types  of  data :  ( 1 )  Historical  per- 
sons referred  to  in  each  book;  (2)  specific  dates  and  frequency  of  reference 
to  various  periods  in  history;  (3)  the  frequency  of  reference  to  the  leading 


The  Third  Yearbook 


247 


foreign  countries;  and    (4)   historical  movements,  events,   conditions,  and 
problems. 


TABLE    5i.— TWENTY    MOST    FREQUENTLY    MENTIONED    PERSONS    IN 
BOOKS  AND  CYCLOPEDIA  ARTICLES 


Person 


Books 

Roosevelt,  President 

Cleveland,  President 

McKinley,  President 

Smith,  Adam. 

Taft,  President 

Jackson,  President 

Grant,  President. 

Mill,  John  Stuart 

Wilson,  President 

Garfield,  President .. 

Malthus 

Montesquieu 

Eliot,  Charles  W 

Hamilton,  Alexander 

Harrison,  President  W.  H 

Walker,  Francis 

Hughes,  Charles  Evans 

Lincoln,  Abraham 

Bryce,  James 

Clay,  Henry 

Cobden,  Richard 

List,  Frederick 

Washington,  President 

Cyclopedia  Articles 

Cleveland 

Taft 

Roosevelt 

Wilson 

Wright,  Francis 


Different 
problems 


10 
7 
5 
5 
4 
4 
5 
5 
6 
4 
4 
3 
4 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 


Number  of  times 
mentioned 


Product 


250 
63 
45 
55 
44 
44 
40 
40 
36 
32 
32 
21 
16 
16 
15 
15 
12 
12 


24 
24 
12 
10 

4 


Table  52  shows  the  references  to  dates  in  books  and  cyclopedia  articles 
combined. 

TABLE   52.— DATES   MOST  FREQUENTLY  MENTIONED   IN   BOOKS  AND 
CYCLOPEDIA  ARTICLES 


Date 

Different  problems 

Times  mentioned 

18°2 

9 

34 

1887 

14 

34 

1890 

20 

66 

1893 

14 

33 

1894 

14 

54 

1896 

13 

43 

1897 

17 

53 

1898 

16 

41 

1899 

11 

35 

1900 

18 

73 

1901 

21 

41 

1903 

15 

36 

1904 

11 

37 

1906 

10 

33 

1907 

18 

61 

1908 

13 

71 

1909 

12 

45 

1910 

17 

78 

1911 

14 

35 

1912 

19 

69 

248 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Findings,  a.  Persons — A  total  of  563  different  names  were  found  in 
the  twenty-two  books.  Table  51  shows  the  references  to  the  most  fre- 
quently mentioned  persons  both  in  books  and  in  cyclopedia  articles. 

b.  Dates — 214  dates  were  found  in  the  books  analyzed  and  89  in  the 
cyclopedia  articles. 

The  first  conclusion  that  one  draws  from  a  study  of  these  tables  is  that 
the  persons  and  dates  made  use  of  by  writers  of  books  on  modern  problems 
are  quite .  different  from  the  persons  and  dates  referred  to  in  school  his- 
tories. While  some  of  the  names  are  common  to  both  lists  the  majority  of 
the  names  and  dates  in  these  tables  are  different.  A  second  point  to  be 
noted  is  that  the  majority  of  the  names  referred  to  and  the  dates  men- 
tioned have  to  do  with  recent  history — that  is,  with  history  of  the  United 
States  since  the  Civil  War. 

c.  Historical  periods — The  percentage  of  space  given  to  various  periods 
of  United  States  history  in  books  and  in  cyclopedia  articles  as  compared 
with  the  proportion  of  space  devoted  to  these  periods  in  a  survey  of  ele- 
mentary school  histories  is  shown  in  Table  53. 


TABLE  53.— COMPARISON  OF  PER  CENT  OF  SPACE  GIVEN  VARIOUS 
PERIODS  OF  HISTORY  IN  TEXTBOOKS  AND  BY  WRITERS  OF  CON- 
TEMPORARY PROBLEMS 


Period 

Books 

International 
Cyclopedia 

Elementary 
texts 

Present 
work 

0.1 
2.5 
3.8 
1.8 

4.7 
85.7 

3.7 
0.67 
2.0 
3.5 
6.0 
11.0 
74.0 

8.27 
19.62 
13.69 
14.17 
21.00 
24.67 

Colonial  to  1764 

0.93 
2.46 

1764-1783 

1.72 

1783-1812 

4.38 

1812-1861                  

16.39 

1861-1916 

74.12 

It  is  obvious  that  the  references  classified  by  periods  deal  preponderantly 
with  those  events  and  movements  since  1861.  In  fact,  nearly  three-fourths 
of  the  references  deal  with  recent  history  as  compared  with  about  one-fourth 
the  emphasis  to  such  events  in  elementary  school  histories. 

The  outstanding  feature,  then,  of  the  historical  information  essential  for 
the  understanding  of  political  problems  is  that  this  historical  information 
made  use  of  by  writers  about  contemporary  problems  deals  chiefly  with 
materials  in  relatively  recent  times,  particularly  since  the  Civil  War.  On 
the  other  hand,  we  should  note  in  Table  53  that  whereas  most  attention  by 
the  writers  of  contemporary  problems  is  given  to  the  history  since  1861, 
74.12  per  cent  for  example,  that  elementary  textbooks  give  only  24.67  per 
cent  of  the  allotment  of  space  to  the  same  period.  Such  a  discrepancy 
between  the  history  used  by  writers  on  contemporary  problems  and  the 
history  set  forth  in  textbooks  calls  at  least  for  more  serious  study  of  the 
bases  upon  which  crucial  materials  of  the  past  are  selected  for  inclusion  in 
the  social  science  curriculum.  ' 


The  Third  Yearbook 


249 


TABLE  54.— COMPARISON  OF  BAGLEY'S  RESULTS  WITH  THOMAS'  FOR 
THE  MOST  FREQUENTLY  MENTIONED  CONTINENTS 


Country 


Thomas 


Bagley 


Actual 
frequency 


North  America 

Europe 

Asia 

Africa 

South  America 
Australia 


100 
172 
18 
90 
63 
18 


100 
73 
13 

4 
3 

1 


TABLE  55.— FREQUENCY  OF  MENTION  OF  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES 


Country 


Thomas 
frequency 


Branom  &  Reavis 
score 


United  States. .  .  . 

France 

Germany 

Great  Britain 
Austria-Hungary . 

Belgium 

Russia 

China 

Italy 

Canada 

Turkey 

Holland 

India 

Brazil 

Mexico 

Siberia 

Japan 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Bulgaria 

Argentina 

Egypt 

Australia 


90 
71 
70 
53 
23 
22 
20 
14 
14 
14 
11 
10 
10 


30 
28 
28 
28 
28 
23 
27 
26 
27 
27 
20 
24 
28 
25 
24 
0 
27 
21 
21 
0 
0 
25 
20 
23 


TABLE   56.— FREQUENCY   OF   MENTION    OF   THE   LARGEST   EUROPEAN 

CITIES 


City 

Branom  &  Reavis 
Rank 

Thomas 
frequency 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 

43 

26 

23 

4 

9 

2 

1 

2 

1 

5 

0 

3 

0 

0 

1 

1 

3 

4 

250 


Department  of  Superintendence 


STUDY  NO.  13.  Thomas,  Joel  Bert.  A  study  in  minimal  essentials 
of  geography  for  the  elementary  schools.  Unpublished  Master  of  Arts 
Thesis  on  file  in  the  Library,  Univ.  of  Indiana,  Bloomington,  Ind. 

Problem.  To  determine  a  list  of  minimal  essentials  in  elementary 
geography. 

Method.  After  a  review  of  other  studies  that  attempt  to  state  the  mini- 
mal essentials,  Mr.  Thomas  made  a  comparative  study  with  the  Bagley  in- 
vestigation by  the  reference  method  of  the  allusions  in  a  sampling  of  the  fol- 
lowing periodicals:  The  Indianapolis  Neivs,  The  Danville  Gazette ,  and 
Youth's  Companion.  Four  editions  of  the  first  two  and  six  of  the  latter 
were  selected  at  random  from  the  period  1911-1918. 

Findings.  One  hundred  and  eighty-eight  pages  of  printed  matter  was 
found  to  contain  5027  geographical  references.  The  following  tables  are 
given  herewith  for  comparative  purposes. 

Table  55  compares  the  frequency  of  occurrence  of  various  countries 
with  the  score  of  each  country  in  the  Branom-Reavis  study. 

Table  56  gives  the  ranking  based  upon  the  scores  according  to  the 
Branom-Reavis  study  and  the  frequency  of  mention  of  the  largest  cities  in 
Europe  according  to  the  Thomas  study. 

Table  57  compares  the  rank  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  United  States  ac- 
cording to  the  Branom-Reavis  list  and  the  Thomas  study.  In  a  similar 
way  Mr.  Thomas  compares  rivers,  bays,  and  mountains  with  the  Bagley 
study. 


TABLE  57.— RANK  OF  CHIEF  CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


City 

Branom  & 
Reavis  rank 

Thomas 
frequency 

Thomas 
rank 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

93 
86 

20 

23 

28 

26 

14 

21 

16 

9 

23 

9 

25 

2 

10 

111 

17 

2 

1 

10 

7 

61 

0 

5 

8 

2 

12 

10 

6 

2 

3 

9 

7.5 

5 

6 
12 

8 
11 
15.5 

7.5 
15.5 

7 
21 
14 

1 
10 
21 
22 
14 
18 

4 

0 
20 
16 
21 
13 
14 
19 

Pittsburgh 

Detroit 

Buffalo 

Seattle 

St.  Paul 

Louisville 

The  Third  Yearbook 


251 


Table  58  shows  the  per  cent  of  references  to  various  types  of  geography 
in  the  Thomas  study  and  in  the  Bagley  study. 

TABLE  58.— PER  CENT  OF  REFERENCES  TO  VARIOUS  TYPES  OF 

GEOGRAPHY 


Types  of  geography 


Thomas 
Per  cent 


Bagley 
Per  cent 


Place  geography 

Political  geography .  .  . 
Commercial  geography 

Social  geography 

Historical  geography. . 
Unclassified 


45.8 

18.1 

3.2 

8.6 

0.9 

22.8 


53.5 

25.1 

5.8 

4.8 

1.7 


Mr.  Thomas  says,  "The  striking  difference  in  the  figures  for  the  unclassi- 
fied references  is  due  to  the  large  number  of  local  references  in  the  metro- 
politan and  county  newspapers.  The  large  per  cent  of  local  references  in 
the  newspapers  is  an  indication  of  the  relative  importance  of  home  geo- 
graphy." One  notes  there  is  a  rather  marked  resemblance  between  the  per- 
centage of  distributions  for  the  other  types  of  geography. 

STUDY  NO.  14.  Washburne,  Carleton  W.  Basic  facts  needed  in 
history  and  geography ;  a  statistical  investigation.  The  Twenty-second 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  II. 
1923,  pp.  216-233. 

Problem.  To  select  basic  facts  in  history  and  geography  by  an  imper- 
sonal standard  for  the  elementary  school  course  of  study  in  Winnetka,  Illi- 
nois. Dr.  Washburne  assumed  that  an  important  function  in  the  teaching 
of  geography  and  history  was  to  make  children  familiar  with  the  facts  that 
are  commonly  known  to  intelligent  people.  The  facts  frequently  alluded  to 
in  periodicals  must  be  taught  if  our  children  are  to  read  intelligently. 

Method.  The  type  of  subject  matter,  generality  of  distribution,  and 
period  of  time  covered  guided  the  investigators  in  this  study. 

Four  literary  periodicals  were  selected:  Atlantic,  Bookman,  Century, 
Scribner's;  five  popular  fiction  periodicals:  American,  Cosmopolitan,  Sat- 
urday Evening  Post,  Ladies'  Home  Journal,  Good  Housekeeping ;  five 
news  periodicals:  World's  Work,  Literary  Digest,  Outlook,  New 
Republic,  Nation;  and  four  newspapers:  New  York  Times,  Chicago 
Tribune,  Chicago  Herald-Examiner,  and  Christian  Science  Monitor. 

Dr.  Washburne  says  in  respect  to  samplings  of  these  periodicals :  "We 
chose  about  fifteen  issues  of  each  of  these  periodicals,  three  every  third 
year,  in  such  a  way  that  one  periodical  or  another  covered  almost  every 
month  of  every  year  from  1905  to  May,  1922.  In  this  way  we  avoided 
seasonal  weighting  of  items,  and  secured  information  over  a  wide  enough 
range  of  years  to  avoid  the  danger  of  overemphasis  of  purely  transitory 
material."  Every  allusion  to  a  person,  place,  date,  or  event  was  recorded. 
Altogether  there  were  over  81,000  allusions. 


252 


Department  of  Superintendence 


TABLE  59.— FREQUENCY  RANKS  OF  FIFTY  MOST  COMMON  HISTORICAL 
AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  ALLUSIONS 


Allusion 

Number  of 
periodical 

years 

Number  of 
years  be- 
tween first 
and  last 
allusion 

Number  of 
articles  in 
which  allus- 
ions occur 

Gross 
number  of 
allusions 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

103 
103 
100 
100    . 

98 
9.5 
.     92 
92 
86 
86 
86 
86 
83 
81 
81 
81 
81 
78 
78 
78 
78 
75 
75 
75 

75 
74 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
70 
69 
66 
66 
65 
63 
63 
63 
63 
63 
63 
62 
61 
61 
61 
61 
61 
59 
59 

18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 

IS 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
IS 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 

1,211 
1,155 
1,390 
911 
353 
629 
674 
297 
594 
516 
428 
267 
400 
837 
659 
202 
193 
362 
288 
279 
264 
457 
350 
240 

216 

257 
255 
216 
216 
213 
142 
137 
124 
172 
169 
380 
151 
130 
124 
109 
103 
178 
170 
175 
133 
121 
109 
148 
193 
80 

5,903 
3,315 

3,848 

New  York  City              

2,386 

750 

1,303 

3,015 

564 

New  York  State     

1,090 

1,494 

Italy                 

1,140 

902 

1,539 

1,994 

1,725 

604 

269 

1,730 

674 

649 

761 

899 
618 

814 

Africa  (including  North  and  South  Africa, 
etc.)          

441 

Roosevelt,  Theodore 

617 
632 
337 

199 

354 

160 

236 
176 

193 

460 

789 
255 

Egypt 

286 
121 

460 
174 

247 

Taft,  President. . . 

411 

281 

219 

165 

Washington,  George 

Civil  War 

Austria  (including  Austro-Hungary) 

216 

162 

429 

86 

The  frequency  of  ranks  was  determined  on  the  basis  of :  ( 1 )  The 
number  of  periodical-years  in  order  to  weight  the  number  of  periodicals 
containing  allusions  year  by  year;  (2)  the  range  of  years — that  is,  the 
lapse  of  time  from  the  first  year  in  which  an  allusion  was  found  to  the  last; 

(3)  the  number  of  articles  containing  allusions  to  the  item  in  question;  and 

(4)  the  gross  number  of  allusions. 

Periodical-years  gave  an  almost  perfect  index  as  to  the  probability  of 
meeting  allusions  to  the  item.     Therefore,  items  were  ranked  according  to 


The  Third  Yearbook  253 

their  periodical-years.     Table  59  shows  a  few  of  the  most  frequently  men- 
tioned allusions. 

Before  such  lists  are  accepted  with  any  great  degree  of  finality,  it  is 
probable  that  other  samplings  should  be  taken.  Dr.  Washburne's  list  is 
significant  for  the  range  of  the  sample — namely,  over  eighteen  years — from 
1905  to  1922.  One  might,  however,  question  whether  his  list  of  magazines 
and  newspapers  is  sufficiently  representative  of  the  average  reading  of  the 
Dublic  of  periodicals.  Another  investigation  of  other  magazines  and  news- 
papers, perhaps  with  larger  circulations,  might  well  be  undertaken.  If 
=uch  an  investigation  agrees  in  its  findings  with  those  of  Dr.  Washburne, 
we  would  be  in  a  more  definite  position  to  assert  that  these  are  the  minimal 
essential  facts  in  geography  and  history  that  one  encounters  in  his  reading 
of  periodicals. 

STUDY  NO.  15.  Peters,  Charles  C.  Detailed  analysis  of  one  objec- 
tive of  cultural  education.  Published  in  Foundations  of  educational  soci- 
ology.    New  York,  Macmillan  Co.,  1924,  pp.  419-424. 

Problem.  To  find  what  information  is  necessary  for  the  following  item 
of  culture:  At  least  superficial  acquaintance  with  a  wide  variety  of  mat- 
ters, so  as  not  to  be  entirely  ignorant  of  practically  anything  met  with 
in  reading  or  heard  about,  but  also  to  "place"  them  at  least  roughly  in  their 
setting.  Peters  asserts  that  this  ability  to  place  references  and  to  get  satis- 
faction from  it  is  an  important  element  of  culture.  The  study  is  included 
here  because  it  is  another  check  upon  the  informational  facts  involving  his- 
tory and  geography  in  popular  literature. 

Method.  Classes  of  Professor  Peters  searched  through  the  most  widely 
read  contemporary  literature  to  discover  references  to  history,  geography, 
and  the  like,  because  "it  is  in  connection  with  such  literature  that  the  typi- 
cal person  will  have  occasion  to  get  the  satisfactions  and  questions." 

A  study  of  Mr.  H.  F.  Jenkins,  of  Little,  Brown  and  Company,  in- 
volving what  books  have  been  most  widely  read  within  recent  years,  was 
used.  Twenty-six  "best  sellers,"  including  such  books  as  Main  Street,  Four 
Horsemen  of  the  Apocalypse,  The  Shepherd  of  the  Hills,  Great  Heart,  The 
River  s  Etid,  Heart  of  the  West,  and  The  Inside  of  the  Cup,  were,  there- 
fore, analyzed  for  the  allusions  in  which  information  concerning  history, 
geography,  literature,  and  so  on,  was  called  for.  Local  references  were 
excluded  and  duplicates  counted  only  if  they  occurred  in  a  new  setting. 

"Besides  these  twenty-six  novels  there  were  covered  in  the  same  way 
twenty-five  short  stories,  four  thousand  jokes,  two  thousand  comic  pictures 
in  the  newspapers,  and  the  legends  of  ten  moving  picture  shows.  These 
lists  were  then  telescoped  and  the  number  of  times  each  item  occurred  thus 
determined.  The  most  frequently  mentioned — New  York  City — had  oc- 
curred ninety-six  times  and  the  others  ranged  from  that  down  to  one  time. 
Motion  picture  shows  and  short  stories  were  added  until  the  highest  one 
stood  at  exactly  one  hundred.  This  ought  to  give  a  pretty  fair  sampling  of 
the  reading  that  the  rank  and  file  of  people  do,  and  hence  indicate  rather 


254 


Department  of  Superintendence 


TABLEI60. 


-HISTORICAL  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  TOPICS  IN  CONTEMPO- 
RARY LITERATURE 


Topic 


New  York  City 

Germany 

France 

England 

The  Bible 

London , 

Paris 

Chicago 

Europe 

Ireland 

China 

Boston 

Rome 


Times 
mentioned 


100 
55 
54 
50 
44 
43 
30 
29 
28 
24 
23 
21 
20 


Topic 


Shakespeare , 

George  Washington 

Henry  Ford 

Caesar 

New  England 

Lincoln 

Congress 

Greece 

Italy 

Russia 

Scotland 

California 


Times 
mentioned 


19 
19 
18 
18 
17 
16 
16 
16 
15 
15 
15 
15 


TABLE  61.— AVERAGE  PERCENTAGE  OF  SPACE  DEVOTED  TO  NINE 
HISTORICAL  PERIODS  IN  TEXTS  PUBLISHED  IN  FOUR  DIFFERENT 
INTERVALS 


Historical  period 


Average   percentage    of    space    devoted   to   historical 
periods  in  textbooks 


Intervals  in  which  textbooks  reviewed  were  published 

1865-1874 

1881-1888 

1890-1904 

1906-1912 

5.7 

7.9 

11.1 

8.2 

21.3 

20.0 

17.4 

15.9 

5.6 

4.8 

3.4 

3.6 

3.1 

1.8 

3.3 

4.1 

17.6 

17.3 

11.9 

9.5 

6.4 

8.2 

8.7 

14.1 

16.9 

15.6 

19.1 

21.0 

18.8 

14.2 

11.9 

10.2 

8.95 

11.3 

14.9 

14.4 

Discovery  and  exploration. 

Colonial  development 

Colonial  wars. .  .  ., 

Pre-revolution 

Revolution 

1783-1812 

1812-1861 

Civil  War  to  1865 

1865  to  date  of  publication 


TABLE  62.— PERCENTAGE  OF  SPACE  ALLOTTED  TO  PERIODS  OF  AMERI- 
CAN HISTORY  AS  GIVEN  BY  THE  COMMITTEE  OF  EIGHT  REPORT, 
THE  STUDY  OF  W.  C.  BAGLEY  AND  HAROLD  O.  RUGG,  AND  THE 
STUDIES  OF  EARLE  RUGG  ON:  EARLY  AMERICAN  HISTORY  PUB- 
LISHED BEFORE  i860 


Period 

Committee 
of  Eight 
report 

Study  of 

W.  C.  Bagley 

and  H.  O. 

Rugg 

Study  of 
current 
histories 

Early  his- 
tories pub- 
lished before 
1860 

Discovery  and  Exploration  1000-1607 

Colonization  1607-1690 

Colonial  Wars  1690-1763 

Pre-Revolutionary  War  Period  1763-1775.  . 
Revolutionary  War  1775-1783 

12.90 

21.20 
3.10 
2.06 

14.40 
8.70 

22.70 
6.10 
9.30 

8.27 

15.95 

3.67 

4.11 

9.58 

14.17 

21.01 

10.22 

14.45 

5.73 

8.89 

6.48 

3.50 

5.67 

10.82 

24. 2S 

7.70 

21.69 

5.86 

8.09 

28.73 

6.48 

4.32 

20.36 

Period  1783-1812 

9.60 

Period  1812-1861 

22.76 

Civil  War  1861-1865. 

Period  1865-1912 

Period  1912  to  date 

The  Third  Yearbook  255 

reliably  the  background  of  information  needed  for  the  maximum  apprecia- 
tion of  this  reading." 

Findings.    The  most  frequently  mentioned  items  are  listed  in  Table  60. 

Dr.  Peters'  study  is  further  substantiation  of  the  basic  minimal  essential 
facts  that  one  encounters  in  another  source  of  reading — namely,  most 
widely  read  contemporary  literature.  With  the  other  studies  in  this  field, 
it  should  be  used  to  amplify  and  check  attempts  to  obtain  as  complete  a  list 
as  possible  of  socially  valuable  minimal  essential  facts  in  geography  and 
history. 

c.  Studies  that  contribute  data  concerning  what  facts,  dates,  persons, 
topics,  problems,  etc.,  are  stressed  in  commonly  used  school  textbooks 

STUDY  NO.  16.  Bagley,  W.  C,  and  Rugg,  Harold  O.  The  content 
of  American  history  as  taught  in  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  An  analysis 
of  typical  school  textbooks.  Bulletin  16,  School  of  Education,  Univ.  of 
Illinois,  Urbana,  111.     1915. 

Problem.  To  show  the  trends  and  relative  emphases  given  to  the  basic 
materials  in  United  States  history  taught  in  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  by 
means  of  analyzing  commonly  used  textbooks  in  four  periods,  namely, 
1865-1874,  1881-1888,  1890-1904,  and  1906-1912. 

This  study  was  undertaken  under  the  assumption  that  the  minimal  con- 
tent of  geography  and  history  as  taught  in  the  elementary  school  should  in- 
clude the  geographical  and  historical  data  with  which  everyone  should  be 
familiar,  the  facts  and  principles  which  might  be  assumed  as  part  of  the 
culture  common  to  all  of  the  people,  the  need  for  knowing  what  elements  of 
historical  and  geographical  knowledge  are  now,  and  have  been  in  the  im- 
mediate past,  actually  part  of  the  common  pabulum  of  elementary  instruc- 
tion assumed  prime  importance.  It  is  the  textbook  that  forms  the  basis  of 
instruction  in  history  in  American  elementary  and  secondary  schools. 

Method.  A  careful  count  of  the  proportion  of  space  devoted  to  the 
major  periods  and  to  the  subordinate  topics  within  each  period  as  well  as 
the  frequency  of  mention  of  important  persons  in  each  period  was  made. 
Out  of  the  latter,  the  so-called  Hall  of  Fame  of  important  persons  in 
American  history  was  developed. 

Findings.  The  proportion  of  space  which  commonly  used  textbooks 
devote  to  nine  periods  in  American  history  is  shown  in  Table  61. 

The  more  important  facts  set  forth  in  this  study  may  be  summarized  as 
follows:  In  so  far  as  can  be  determined  from  the  material  presented  in  the 
textbooks,  elementary  American  history  as  taught  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  has  been  and  still  is  predominantly  political  and  military  history. 

Within  the  past  fifty  years,  the  emphasis  upon  military  affairs  as  meas- 
ured by  the  proportion  of  space  devoted  to  wars  has  declined.  In  general, 
battles  and  campaigns  are  treated  less  in  detail  than  was  formerly  the 
rule,  while  proportionately  more  space  is  devoted  to  the  causes  and  the  re- 
sults of  wars.    The  lessening  emphasis  upon  the  details  of  the  wars  is  first 


256  Department  of  Superintendence 

noticed  in  some  of  the  textbooks  published  between  1881  and  1888,  and  the 
tendency  has  been  general  and  decided  since  that  time. 

The  latter  books  give  a  perceptibly  heavier  emphasis  to  the  facts  of  eco- 
nomic and  industrial  development  than  do  the  earlier  books,  although  politi- 
cal development  still  constitutes  the  essential  core  of  elementary  historical 
instruction. 

As  regards  the  treatment  of  specific  eras  or  epochs,  the  principal  increases 
in  emphasis  are  to  be  noted  in  connection  with  (a)  The  period  1783-1812 
(especially  in  the  treatment  of  the  so-called  "critical  period"  between  the 
close  of  the  Revolution  and  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution)  ;  (b)  the 
non-military  affairs  of  the  period  1812-1861;  and  (c)  European  events 
preceding  and  during  the  periods  of  discovery,  exploration,  and  settlement. 

The  persons  whose  names  are  most  frequently  mentioned  in  the  ele- 
mentary textbooks  are  predominantly  those  who  have  been  most  intimately 
associated  with  political  development  and  with  military  and  naval  affairs. 

Variations  among  the  several  textbooks  in  respect  of  persons  mentioned 
are  numerous  and  wide.  Most  of  the  books  mention  a  much  larger  number 
of  names  than  the  average  pupil  will  be  likely  to  remember.  Certain  names, 
however,  are  made  to  stand  out  through  repetition. 

Variations  in  the  topics  and  events  which  constitute  the  chief  content  of 
elementary  historical  instruction  are  probably  less  numerous  and  less  wide 
than  variations  in  names  of  persons  mentioned.  There  is  always  a  rather 
distinct  "core"  of  topics  common  to  most  of  the  books,  and  these  topics  may 
be  looked  upon  as  constituting  the  present  "standardized"  content  of  ele- 
mentary American  history. 

Numerous  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  construction  of  elementary 
textbooks  in  history  during  the  past  fifty  years.  The  more  important  of 
these  are:  (a)  A  movement  toward  a  simpler  "style"  with  larger  emphasis 
upon  clear  statements  of  causal  relationships;  (b)  the  introduction  and  de- 
velopment of  the  "problem"  as  a  method  of  teaching  history,  and  a  conse- 
quent encouragement  of  "judgment"  as  contrasted  with  rote  memory,  of 
rational  as  contrasted  with  verbatim  mastery;  (c)  a  marked  decline  in  the 
employment  of  imaginative  pictures  as  illustrations  and  an  increase  in  the 
use  of  pictures  that  represent  sincere  attempts  to  portray  actual  conditions ; 
(d)  a  marked  decline  in  the  use  of  anecdotal  materials;  and  (e)  a  larger 
and  wider  use  of  maps. 

STUDY  NO.  17.  Rugg,  Earle.  "An  analysis  of  social  science  text- 
books" taken  from  a  forthcoming  publication — Studies  in  curriculum  con- 
struction in  the  social  sciences.  (Unpublished  Ph.  D.  Dissertation  on 
file  in  the  Library,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York 
City,  1923.) 

Problem.  To  evaluate  the  extent  to  which  social  science  textbooks 
meet  social  and  learning  needs  of  junior  and  senior  high  school  pupils. 

Method.  Widely  used  textbooks  were  analyzed  for  references  to  per- 
sons, dates,  topics,  etc.,  and  comparisons  were  made  to  see  to  what  extent 


The  Third  Yearbook 


257 


socially  valuable  materials  were  included  and  whether  textbook  materials 
were  organized  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  learning. 

Findings.  Table  62  shows  the  relative  emphases  given  periods  in  Amer- 
ican history  by  authors  of  textbooks  for  nearly  one  hundred  years,  and 
the  distribution  of  emphasis  of  one  of  the  most  influential  committees  of 
the  American  Historical  Association — the  Committee  of  Eight. 

From  Table  62  one  may  ascertain  the  relative  proportions  of  space  al- 
lotted in  textbooks  in  American  History  for  one  hundred  years.  It  is 
evident  that  historians  are  giving  more  emphasis  to  recent  events  and  that 
they  are  stressing  military  history  less. 

TABLE  63.— PERCENTAGE  OF  SPACE  GIVEN  TO  POLITICAL,  MILITARY 
AND  SOCIAL  AND  ECONOMIC  HISTORY  BY  COMMITTEE  OF  EIGHT 
AS  COMPARED  WITH  EARLY  AND  CURRENT  HISTORIES 


Political 


Military 


Social  and 

economic 


Committee  of  eight , 

Early  histories,  published  before  1860 

Current  histories  since  1912   (four  elementary  and  four 
advanced) 


33.0 
38.4 


30.0 
44.3 


14.59 


Books  and  Encyclopedia  Articles  Dealing  with  Modern  Problems 


Books  on  modern  problems. 
Encyclopedia  articles 


18.7 
37.0 


4.7 
1.7 


37.0 
17.2 


35.5 


78.0 
60.0 


TABLE    64.— NUMBER    OF    PAGES    DEVOTED    TO    CERTAIN    SELECTED 
SOCIAL  AND  ECONOMIC  TOPICS  IN  AMERICAN  HISTORY  TEXT8 
BOOKS 


Topic 


Average 

Average 

number  of 

number  of 

pages  in  8 

pages  in  8 

current  texts 

early  texts 

5.0 

0.5 

12.0 

1.0 

5.0 

1.0 

9.0 

1.0 

X 

X 

7.0 

2.0 

0.5 

0.5 

4.0 

0.2 

9.0 

1.0 

11.0 

1.0 

1.0 

0.3 

10.0 

2.0 

2.0 

0.3 

14.2 

2.0 

0.3 

0.1 

6.0 

0.1 

6.0 

5.0 

25.0 

1.0 

8.0 

1.0 

4.0 

6.0 

.5 

X 

Average 

number  of 

of  pages  in  12 

elementary 

texts 


Average 

number  of 

of  pages  in  8 

high  school 

texts 


Agriculture 

Banking  and  money  chiefly  history. 

Canals  and  roads 

Commerce  and  trade,  foreign  and 
domestio 

Cost  of  living 

Education 

Fisheries 

Inventions  and  patents 

Labor 

Manufacturing  and  business 

Mining 

Natural  resources 

Newspapers  and  literature 

Population  (immigration  included) 

Postal  service 

Railroads 

Religion  and  the  church 

Slavery 

Tariff  and  trade  restraint 

Taxation  and  debt . 

Telephone  and  telegraph 

Miscellaneous:  includes  general 
social  and  economic  matter 
and  life  of  people 


21.0 


1.4 
2.6 
3.7 

3.3 
.0 
x 
0.4 
5.3 
2.6 
2.5 
2.3 


0.5 

2.7 


1.6 
5.0 
3.4 

4.0 
0.2 

x 
0.4 
3.3 
7.8 
2.0 

.5 


1.6 
5.2 


See:  Bobbitt,  The  Curriculum,  pp.  110-11. 


258 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Table  63  shows  that  military  events  are  receiving  less  attention  and  that 
political  and  social  and  economic  matters  are  increasing  in  importance  in 
textbooks.  On  the  other  hand,  one  gains  an  interesting  picture  of  the 
extent  that  such  texts  tend  to  fall  short  of  presenting  the  history  that  is 
essential  to  an  understanding  of  modern  ways  of  living  and  modern  prob- 
lems. The  history  utilized  by  writers  on  contemporary  life  is  preponder- 
antly economic  and  social  history,  while  writers  of  recent  textbooks  give 
only  about  one  third  of  their  space  to  social  and  economic  matters.  It 
should  also  be  noted  that  high  school  textbooks  deal  preponderantly  with 
political  history. 

The  totals  in  this  table  were,  as  a  rule,  scattering  references,  a  few  lines 
on  a  page  here  and  there  in  different  parts  of  the  book. 

Table  64  shows  the  relatively  small  amount  of  space  given  to  basic  social 
and  economic  matters.  When  one  considers  that  the  history  made  use  of 
by  students  of  contemporary  affairs  seems  to  be  preponderantly  of  a  social 
and  economic  character,  it  is  evident  that  we  fail  to  meet  social  needs  in 
our  texts.  This  indictment  is  particularly  serious  when  we  consider  that 
the  study  of  history  constitutes,  for  a  large  part  of  our  pupils,  their  sole 
opportunity  for  being  made  acquainted  with  the  problems  and  modes  of 
living  in  the  society  in  which  they  are  forced  to  live  and  for  whose  progress 
and  welfare  they  are  exclusively  responsible. 

In  a  similar  way,  a  study  was  made  of  the  persons  and  dates  referred  to 
most  frequently  in  textbooks  and  by  writers  on  problems  of  modern  society. 
Space  prevents  the  reproduction  of  these  tables.  The  important  conclusion 
to  be  noted  is  that  the  historical  personages  and  dates  made  use  of  by  writers 
on  present-day  problems  are  chiefly  those  persons  and  dates  in  recent  history. 

Table  65  illustrates  what  two  investigations  using  varying  criteria  of 
social  utility  indicate  as  to  relative  importance  of  countries  to  be  included 
in  the  curriculum.  Table  65  combines  the  rankings  of  the  twenty  most 
frequently  mentioned  countries  according  to  two  standards:  first,  the 
frequency  ranking  in  terms  of  the  Branom-Reavis  criteria  (Area,  popula- 
tion, imports  and  exports,  imports  into  and  exports  from  the  United  States), 
and  the  second,   (the  frequency  indicated  by  figures  in  parentheses  to  the 


TABLE    65.— TWENTY    MOST    FREQUENTLY    MENTIONED 
RANKED  ACCORDING  TO  TWO  STANDARDS 


COUNTRIES 


Rank 

Country- 

Rank 

Country 

1 

United  States  (1) 

11 

China  (3) 

2 

Great  Britain  (7)a 

12 

Brazil  (36) 

3 

Germany  (4) 

13 

Argentina  (44) 

4 

France  (2) 

14 

Netherlands  (13) 

5 

India  (14) 

15 

Mexico  (28) 

6 

Austria-Hungary  (17) 

16 

Belgium  (21) 

7 

Russia  (8) 

17 

Australia  (16) 

8 

Canada  (11) 

18 

Spain  (9) 

9 

Italy  (5) 

19 

Sweden  (19) 

10 

Japan  (6) 

20 

Egypt  (15) 

1  England  instead  of  Great  Britain  would  rank  second  in  allusions. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


259 


right  of  the  countries)  is  according  to  their  frequency  of  reference  in  news- 
papers and  magazines  in  Washburne's  study. 

It  should  be  noted  that  fourteen  of  the  twenty  most  frequently  mentioned 
countries  are  common  to  the  two  lists  and  that  thirteen  have  a  displacement 
of  five  or  less.  These  countries,  at  least,  are  in  all  likelihood  countries 
about  which  children  should  be  taught  detailed,  socially  valuable,  facts. 
And  further  studies  are  now  under  way  to  guide  curriculum  makers  in  the 
choice  of  these  detailed  facts  to  be  selected  and  taught. 

To  what  extent  do  textbooks  meet  learning  needs  ? 

Careful  analysis  reveals  the  encyclopedic  character  of  the  textbooks. 

Table  66  presents  the  number  of  pages  allotted  to  a  few  of  fifty-eight 
civic  and  economic  topics  in  representative  and  widely  used  social  science 
textbooks. 

Obviously  with  fifty-eight  main  classes  of  topics  it  is  impossible,  when 
books  are  expected  to  be  comprehensive,  to  give  much  space  to  any  one  topic. 
It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  space  allotments  are  totals  for 
the  books,  and  in  the  main  they  represent  a  ,few  lines  here  or  a  paragraph 
there  in  the  text. 

To  quote  Bobbitt:  "If  any  one  believes  the  average  treatment  of  these 
topics  to  be  sufficient,  he  can  easily  test  the  matter.  Let  him  send  the  five 
pages  on  banks  and  banking  to  a  list  of  prominent  bankers  requesting  their 
judgment  whether  it  presents  an  adequate  revelation  of  the  growth  of  bank- 
ing in  our  country,  and  as  its  outcome,  an  adequate  picture  of  its  present 
status.  Let  him  send  the  three  or  five  pages  on  railroad  development  to 
prominent  leaders  of  the  railroad  world  with  a  similar  request.  Let  him 
inquire  of  labor  unions  if  the  two  or  three  pages  devoted  to  them  present  a 
satisfactory  account  of  the  development  of  their  present  status  and  relations. 
It  is  not  difficult  to  predict  the  character  of  the  replies. 

"For  each  of  these  topics,  and  for  many  others,  there  is  demonstrable 
need  of  a  full  historical  treatment.  Justice  is  not  to  be  done  to  the  railroad 
situation,  for  example,  short  of  two  hundred  or  five  hundred  pages.  This 
should  present  in  concrete,  vivid  narrative  a  reconstruction  of  experiences 


TABLE  66.— PAGE  ALLOTMENTS  TO  CIVIC  AND  ECONOMIC  TOPICS  IN 

CIVICS  TEXTBOOKS 


Topic 

Community  Civics 

Advanced  Civics 

Problems  of 
democracy 

Book 
A 

Book 
B 

Book 
C 

Book 
A 

Book 
B 

Book 
C 

Book 
A 

Book 
B 

Citizenship:  Who  are  citizens  and  what 

1 

7M 

1M 

5 
Hi 

10 

3 

12M 
1 

H 

0 

22}^ 

0 
21 

7lA 
12K 
19 

7y2 

±A 

6 
17 
14 

H 

4 
0 
0 

0 

2H 

4 

4 

3M 

IK 

2 

H 

5H 

5H 

0 

8 

&V2 

0 
0 
0 

% 

2M 

2oy2 

17 
3 

3J4 
H 
1 
6H 

5 

Conservation 

20M 

29  a 

5H 

7 

Rural  life 

8A 

17 

260 


Department  of  Superintendence 


involved  in  the  development  of  railroads,  beginning  with  the  early  inven- 
tions and  experiments,  and  tracing  the  expansion  of  lines  and  systems  to  the 
present.  The  story  should  fully  present  the  personal  experiences  of  rail- 
road leaders  and  groups ;  only  as  the  'human  element'  is  central  in  the  story 
can  the  reader  actually  re-live  the  experiences.  But  at  the  same  time  it 
should  reveal  fundamental  processes  and  relationships  of  all  kinds;  the 
social  influences  that  called  railroads  into  being;  kinds  and  amounts  of 
service  rendered  to  different  regions;  modes  of  organization,  financing, 
regulation,  wages,  conditions  of  work,  and  the  like.  The  story  should  be 
so  written  that  the  reader  can  see  and  appreciate  the  valiant  national  service 
that  the  railroads  have  rendered  in  pushing  back  the  frontiers  and  opening 
up  the  wilderness  for  civilization ;  in  carrying  the  means  of  civilized  life  to 
every  corner  of  our  land;  in  breaking  down  isolation,  provincialism,  and 
sectionalism;  and  in  promoting  the  central  intra-national  welfare.  The 
story  should  be  presented  so  vividly  and  sympathetically  that  the  reader  can 
enter  whole-heartedly  into  the  action.  This  provides  right  conditions  for 
leaving  large  residues  of  information  acquired  through  living  rather  than 
memorizing;  and  the  materials  and  experiences  out  of  which  the  abstract 
general  principles  are  to  be  distilled." 

It  is  obvious  that  from  present  textbooks  children  do  not  get  adequate 
concepts  of  common  civic  and  economic  matters. 

Table  67  shows  the  amount  of  space  in  pages  (or  lines  where  less  than 
one  fourth  of  a  page  is  given)  that  five  representative  social  science  text- 
books give  to  the  discussion  of  four  housing  standards  presented  in  Harap's 
study. 

Table  67  not  only  shows  the  small  degree  to  which  social  needs,  objec- 
tively determined,  are  taught  but  also  the  fact  that  only  forty  or  fifty  lines 
at  most  are  devoted  to  the  host  of  facts  about  any  one  standard  is  some 
evidence  that  few  real  meanings  about  these  standards  can  be  established  in 
the  minds  of  children. 

Because  of  the  demands  that  textbooks  shall  be  comprehensive — shall 
include  everything  in  the  field — so  many  facts  are  included  that  details 
about  each  fact,  topic,  or  principle  cannot  be  given.  Writers  of  textbooks 
give  literally  their  generalizations  based  upon  their  own  study  and  research. 
They  give  chiefly  the  "texts"  connected  in  narrative  form. 


TABLE  67.— SPACE  IN  PAGES  GIVEN  TO  DISCUSSION  OF  HOUSING  STAND- 
ARDS IN  FIVE  SOCIAL  SCIENCE  TEXTS 


Topic 

Social  Science  Texts 

A 

B                C 

D 

E 

Facts  one  needs  to  know  in  buying  a  home 

Facts  one  needs  to  know  in  order  to  determine  how' 

much  to  pay  when  renting  a  home . 

Facts  one  needs  to  know  about  housing  standards 

1 
2  lines 

m 

1 

0 

1  line 

lA 
lA 

0 

0 

2 
1 

y2 

H 

V2 

% 

The  Third  Yearbook  261 


If  we  could  assume  that  every  school  would  use  textbooks  as  guides  and 
would  also  provide  the  detailed  supplementary  material,  present  practice  in 
the  use  of  textbooks  could  in  some  measure  be  justified.  They  could  then 
be  used  as  convenient  reference  books.  But  practice  in  our  public  school  is 
preponderantly  to  use  scarcely  any  reading  materials  besides  the  text.  We 
ask  pupils  to  spend  several  hundred  hours  reading  material  that  any  normal 
reader  could  read  in  twenty  hours  at  most. 

The  authors  of  textbooks  tend  to  include  most  facts  in  the  field.  For 
example,  careful  examination  of  school  textbooks  show  that  the  typical 
history  textbook  mentions  about  four  hundred  different  persons  one  or  more 
times  and  every  date  (year)  since  1775  one  or  more  times.  Also  a  careful 
frequency  count  reveals  the  fact  that  eight  current  histories  mention  1409 
different  persons  but  that  only  109  of  these  historical  characters  are  common 
to  all  eight  textbooks.  Stating  this  another  way,  each  book  tends  to  em- 
phasize many  persons  in  history  that  in  the  opinion  of  the  authors  of  other 
textbooks  should  be  not  mentioned. 

The  proportion  of  content  that  is  socially  valuable  in  terms  of  frequent, 
universal,  or  crucial  use  is  relatively  small  compared  to  the  sum  total  of 
human  knowledge  in  that  field.  Objective  evidence  must  be  employed  in 
determining  relative  values.  We  then  probably  will  not  tend  to  teach  too 
many  facts.  And  we  will  be  in  a  better  position  to  give  details  about  these 
socially  valuable  facts  so  that  pupils  will  have  opportunities,  in  terms  of  the 
laws  of  learning,  to  make  such  content  a  permanent  part  of  their  equipment 
in  the  great  task  of  being  efficient,  intelligent,  and  informed  citizens. 
Finally,  when  we  do  this,  we  can  demand  the  permanent  mastery  of  every 
activity  involved  in  engaging  efficiently  in  the  duties  of  citizenship,  and  we 
can  demand  that  pupils  exhibit  skill  in  handling  the  problems,  issues,  and 
questions  of  contemporary  society. 

d.  Studies  that  endeavor  to  use  the  judgment  of  experts  concerning 
minimal  essentials. 

STUDY  NO.  18.  Whitbeck,  R.  H.  "Where  shall  we  lay  the  emphasis 
in  teaching  geography?"     Education,  Volume  31,  pp.  108-116. 

Problem.  To  prepare  a  list  of  locational  facts  to  be  thoroughly  taught 
and  permanently  learned  in  the  field  of  geography. 

Method.  Some  seventy-five  teachers,  principals,  and  superintendents 
from  twenty  or  more  states,  representing  all  kinds  of  schools,  acted  as 
judges  to  prepare  the  list  of  locational  facts. 

Committees  were  chosen  to  decide  upon  the  cities  in  a  given  continent 
to  be  included.  No  city  was  to  be  included  unless  it  stood  for  more  than 
one  important  thing.  The  lists  of  these  cities  were  then  passed  over  to  a 
group  of  textbook  writers  in  the  field  of  geography  consisting  of  Professors 
Tarr,  Brigham,  C.  A.  McMurry,  Philip  Emerson,  George  D.  Hubbard, 
and  R.  H.  Whitbeck. 


262 


Department  of  Superintendence 


The  following  list  shows  the  cities  that  the  committee  deemed  important 
enough  to  be  thoroughly  taught  and  permanently  mastered  on  each  conti- 
nent ;  the  numeral  after  the  name  of  each  city  indicates  the  number  of  votes 
out  of  the  six  faculty  votes  that  the  city  received. 


The  United  States  (25) 


New  York  (6) 
Chicago  (6) 
Philadelphia   (6) 
St.  Louis  (6) 
Boston  (6) 
Baltimore  (2) 
Cleveland  (3) 
Buffalo  (3) 
Pittsburgh  (6) 
San  Francisco   (6) 
Cincinnati  (2) 
New  Orleans  (6) 
Milwaukee  (2) 


London  (6) 

Liverpool-Manchester  (6) 
Edinburgh  (6) 
Glasgow  (6) 
Madrid  (4) 
Berlin  (6) 
Hamburg  (6) 
Vienna  (4) 


Bombay  (6) 
Calcutta   (6) 
Canton   (5) 
Pekin-Tien-tsin  (6) 


(6) 


(6) 


Washington 
Denver  (6) 
Louisville   (2) 
Minneapolis-St.  Paul 
Kansas  Cily  (2) 
Indianapolis    (2) 
Duluth-Superior   (5) 
Salt  Lake  City  (3) 
Puget  Sound  Cities  (4) 
Scranton-Wilkes-Barre    (3) 
Galveston  (4) 
Lowell  (3) 


Europe  (16) 


Rome   (6) 
Naples  (3) 
Athens  (6) 
Constantinople  (6) 
St.  Petersburg  (6) 
Paris   (6) 
Marseilles  (3) 
Venice  (4) 


Asia  (8) 


Hongkong  (5) 
Jerusalem  (6) 
Tokio-Yokohama    (6) 
Mecca-Medina  (3) 


Montreal   (6) 

Quebec  (5) 

Rio  de  Janeiro  (6) 


Western  Continent — Exclusive  of  U.  S.   (6) 

Buenos  Aires  (6) 
Havana  (6) 
Mexico  (6) 

(8) 


Africa,  Australia,  and  Scattered  Islands 

Cairo   (5)  Sydney  (3) 

Cape  Town  (5)  Manila  (6) 

Johannesburg   (3)  Batavia  (3) 

Melbourne  (4)  Honolulu  (6) 

The  significant  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  this  study  is  that  only  a  rela- 
tively small  number  of  place  location  facts  out  of  a  rather  large  total  list 
found  in  geographies  are  endorsed  by  even  specialists  in  geography. 

STUDY  NO.  ig.  Wooters,  James  E.  "Elementary  American  history 
standards ;  results  of  an  investigation  carried  on  to  determine  the  most 
important  dates  for  memorizing  in  the  elementary  school."  School  and 
Home  Education ,.1914,  Vol.  34,  pp.  152-155. 

Problem.  To  ascertain  a  standard  list  of  dates  to  be  memorized  in 
American  history. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


263 


Method.  A  long  list  of  dates  and  events  rather  commonly  presented  in 
elementary  school  histories  was  included  in  a  questionnaire  sent  to  one  hun- 
dred fifty  members  of  the  American  Historical  Association.  These  included 
high  school,  normal  and  college  teachers  of  history,  city  superintendents, 
and  authors  of  leading  school  histories. 

These  people  were  asked  to  rank  the  twenty  most  important  dates  out  of 
the  list  suggested,  marking  the  most  important  date  first,  the  next  im- 
portant, second,  and  so  on.  Provision  was  made  for  omission  or  addition  of 
dates.    Seventy-three  replies  were  used  in  the  final  summary. 

In  tabulating  the  ranks,  the  following  arbitrary  scheme  was  adopted  for 
evaluating  dates :  Each  rank  of  one  was  valued  at  twenty  points,  rank  two 
was  given  nineteen  points;  down  to  rank  twenty,  valued  at  one  point;  for 
each  zero  vote,  ten  points  were  deducted. 

Findings.    Table  68  shows  the  twenty  dates  which  ranked  highest. 

Only  five  dates— 1492,  1607,  1776,  1789,  1812— received  no  votes  for 
elimination.  The  "experts"  were  also  asked  to  add  dates  to  the  lists  sub- 
mitted. Five  hundred  thirty-nine  additions  were  suggested  but  only  six— 
1618,  1828,  1860,  1890,  1898,  1902— received  four  or  more  votes. 

"The  most  striking  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  the  investigation  is  the 
lack  of  agreement  among  those  who  may  be  considered  specialists  in  history 
as  to  what  constitutes  the  fundamentals  of  elementary  work." 


TABLE  68.— DATES,  RANKED  AS  TO  IMPORTANCE  FOR  MEMORIZING 
IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


Rank 

Date 

index 

Rank 

Date 

index 

1 

1776 

1,323 

11 

1812 

752 

2 

1492 

1,261 

12 

1765 

629 

3 

1607 

1,163 

13 

1783 

618 

4 

1789 

1,100 

14 

1865  (Apr.  9) 

601 

5 

1620 

961 

15 

1850 

591 

6 

1803 

955 

16 

1854 

590 

7 

1861  (Apr.  14) 

901 

17 

1775 

585 

8 

1787 

821 

18 

1781 

584 

9 

1863  (Jan.  1) 

808 

19 

1823 

526 

10 

1820 

793 

20 

1846 

470 

e.  Studies  that  suggest  minimal  essentials  upon  other  standards  or  criteria 

STUDY  NO.  20.  Branom,  M.  E.,  and  Reavis,  W.  C.  The  determi- 
nation and  measurement  of  the  minimal  essentials  of  elementary  school 
geography.  Seventeenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education,  Part  I.     1918.     pp.  27-39. 

Problem.  To  use  certain  objective  criteria  for  the  selection  of  a  list  of 
the  minimal  essentials  in  the  field  of  geography.  The  writers  stated  that 
the  list  should  emphasize  relational  facts  as  well  as  facts  of  place.  They, 
therefore,  set  up  certain  standards  for  the  selection  of  the  facts  to  be  learned 
and  for  the  relations  to  be  recognized  and  appreciated.  They  also  had  in 
mind  that  these  minimal  essentials  should  tell  whether  or  not  the  aims  of 
this  subject  are  being  realized.  The  aims  of  geography  teaching  as  listed 
by  Branom  and  Reavis  are: 


264 


Department  of  Superintendence 


1.  .To  impart  the  more  important  facts  of  conventional  and  practical  value 

2.  To  secure  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  the  ability  to  interpret  properly  the  geo- 
graphical factors  that  enter  into  the  time  and  moment 

3.  To  develop  an  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  the  United  States  intrinsically, 
and  its  relational  aspects  to  the  world  as  a  whole. 

They,  therefore,  had  in  mind  the  requirement  of  general  knowledge  about 
the  following: 

1.  The  relative  location  of  the  large  land  and  water  bodies 

2.  The  location  of  the  more  important  countries  of  the  world 

3.  The  location  of  the  more  important  cities  of  the  world 

4.  The  physical  conditions  of  the  more  important  countries 

5.  The  occupations  of  the  people  and  the  conditions  of  transportation 

6.  Our  commercial  relations  with  these  countries 

7.  The  fundamental  relations  between  the  physical  factors  and  human  activities. 

TABLE  69.— FIFTY-TWO  COUNTRIES  RANKED  AS  TO  RELATIVE  IMPORT- 
ANCE 


Country 

Popula- 

Total 

Imports 

Total 

Exports 

Area 

tion 

imports 

from  U.S. 

exports 

toU.S 

Total* 

1.  United  States 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

30 

2.   Great  Britain 

3 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

28 

3.  Germany 

3 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

28 

4.  France 

3 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

28 

5.  India 

5 

5 

5 

3 

5 

5 

28 

6.  Austria-Hungary 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

4 

28 

7.  Russia 

5 

5 

5 

4 

0 

3 

27 

5 

4 

4 

5 

4 

5 

27 

9.  Italy 

2 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

27 

10.  Japan 

3 

0 

4 

5 

4 

5 

26 

11.  China 

5 

5 

4 

4 

4 

4 

26 

12.  Brazil 

5 

4 

3 

4 

4 

5 

25 

13.  Argentina 

5 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

25 

14.   Netherlands 

1 

3 

5 

0 

5 

5    . 

24 

15.  Mexico 

5 

4 

3 

4 

3 

5 

24 

1 

3 

5 

5 

5 

4 

23 

5 

2 

4 

5 

4 

3 

23 

3 
3 

4 

4 
3 

4 

4 
4 
3 

4 
4 
2 

3 

4 
3 

3 
3 
4 

21 

21 

20.  Egypt 

20 

21.  Turkey 

4 

4 

3 

2 

3 

.4 

20 

22.  Switzerland 

1 

2 

4 

4 

4 

4 

19 

23.  Chile 

4 
4 

2 
3 

3 
3 

3 
3 

3 

4 

4 
2 

19 

24.  So.  African   Union.  .  . 

19 

25.  Philippine  Is 

2 

4 

2 

4 

2 

4 

18 

26.  Peru 

4 
4 
1 

3 
3 
2 

2 

1 
4 

3 
3 
4 

2 
2 
4 

4 
4 
2 

18 

27.  Cuba 

17 

28.   Denmark 

17 

29.   Norway 

3 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

17 

30.  Algeria 

4 

3 

3 

2 

3 

1 

16 

31.   New  Zealand 

2 

1 

3 

3 

3 

3 

15 

32.  Persia 

4 

4 

2 

1 

2 

2 

15 

33.  Portugal 

1 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

14 

2 
4 
5 

3 
2 
2 

3 

1 
1 

2 
3 
2 

3 

1 
2 

1 
3 
1 

14 

14 

36.  Bolivia 

13 

2 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

13 

38.  Siam 

3 

2 
3 

1 
2 

4 
2 
3 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

2 
2 
1 
2 
2 

1 
2 

1 
2 
1 

13 

11 

40.   Morocco 

11 

41.  Serbia 

10 

42.  Bulgaria 

10 

43.  Equador 

3 

1 

2 

2 

10 

44.  Haiti 

1 
2 
2 
1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

3 
1 
2 
2 

1 
1 
1 
3 

9 

45.  Tunis 

9 

9 

47.  Costa  Rica 

9 

48.  Guatemala 

2 

1 

2 

2 

9 

49.  Panama 

1 

1 

2 

2 

8 

1 
2 

1 

1 

1 
1 

2 
1 

7 

7 

1 

1 

1 

1 

6 

a  An  arbitrary  perfect  score  of  thirty  points  has  been  assigned  to  the  United  States  because  it  is 
the  home  country  of^the  pupils. 


The  Third  Yearbook  265 


Method.  The  following  standards  or  criteria  were  employed :  ( 1 )  The 
area  of  the  country  in  square  miles,  (2)  population,  (3)  total  value  of  im- 
ports, (4)  total  value  of  imports  from  the  United  States,  (5)  total  value 
of  exports,  and  (6)  total  value  of  exports  to  the  United  States. 

The  writers  assert  that  "these  criteria  not  only  offer  objective  data  of 
great  significance  in  the  study  of  particular  countries,  but  also  afford  a 
means  of  measuring  the  relations  of  the  United  States  to  other  countries." 

Using  as  their  source  of  data  the  Statistical  Abstracts  of  the  United 
States,  1915,  fifty-two  countries  were  ranked  according  to  their  relative  im- 
portance with  respect  to  each  of  the  six  criteria  above. 

The  fifty-two  countries  were  then  divided  into  quintiles  and  the  rank  in 
the  first  quintile  was  given  five  points,  in  the  second,  four  points,  etc.,  for 
each  of  the  six  criteria.  The  total  score  of  a  country  on  the  six  criteria 
indicates  the  relative  importance  of  that  country  among  the  countries  of 
the  world. 

Findings.  Table  69  indicates  the  total  score  of  each  country  and  its  rank 
in  the  quintile  on  the  six  standards. 

The  value  of  these  rankings  is  that  it  tends  to  make  one  critical  of  the 
relative  importance  of  certain  countries  to  be  studied.  Without  sufficient 
time  to  cover  all  countries  adequately,  the  teacher  using  this  and  other 
criteria,  such  as  the  criterion  of  Washburne  in  his  investigation  of  allusions 
in  newspapers  and  magazines,  may  make  more  certain  of  covering  what  is 
likely  to  be  the  most  socially  valuable  subject-matter  in  the  field  of  geog- 
raphy. 

STUDY  NO.  2i.  Alderman,  Grover  H.  "What  the  Iowa  layman 
should  know  about  courts  and  law."  The  School  Review.  1922.  Volume 
30.    pp.  360-364. 

Problem.  To  determine  the  legal  facts  with  which  a  citizen  should  be 
familiar. 

Method.  A  study  was  made  of  causes  of  litigation  as  filed  in  petitions  of 
the  office  of  the  County  Clerk,  Johnson  County,  Iowa,  for  the  years  1907, 
1908,  and  1909.  This  was  done  on  the  hypothesis  that  if  one  could  examine 
the  causes  which  bring  the  layman  in  contact  with  the  courts  and  the  law, 
one  could  determine  what  knowledge  an  Iowa  layman  should  have  about 
the  courts  and  law. 

Findings.  Table  70  shows  the  number  of  types  of  action  involving  758 
cases  which  were  brought  into  the  District  Court  within  this  period  of  three 
5'ears. 

These  court  cases  were  classified  and  50.3  per  cent  of  all  cases  had  to 
do  with  contracts,  particularly  such  as  promissory  notes,  implied  contracts, 
oral  contracts,  mortgages,  leases,  wills,  etc. ;  44.8  per  cent  with  court  writs 
involving  such  topics  as  quieting  titles,  writ  of  attachment,  decree  of  divorce, 
writ  of  injunction,  and  estates;  and  4.8  per  cent  had  to  do  with  damage 
claims,  such  as  slander,  assault  and  battery,  trespass,  etc. 


266 


Department  of  Superintendence 


TABLE  70.— TYPES  OF  LITIGATION  IN  JOHNSON  COUNTY,  IOWA  FOR 

1907-1909 


Types  of  Court  Cases 


Written  contracts 

Quieting  titles 

Divorce  cases 

Damage  cases 

Implied  contracts 

Oral  contracts 

Suing  for  an  undivided  interest  in  an  estate 

Injunction 

Writs  not  otherwise  mentioned - 

Garnishments 

Cases  asking  for  writs  of  replevin 

Attempt  to  break  or  set  aside  wills , 

Slander 

Writs  of  attachment 

Appeal  from  boards  of  review  or  council  on  assessment 

Habeas  Corpus 

Naturalization , 

Partnership  cases 

Bastardy 

Tax  case 

Appeal  bond 

Alimony 

Contempt  of  court 

Deeds 

Assault  and  battery 

To  incorporate  a  town 

Total 


Number 


199 
190 
79 
65 
50 
46 
34 
30 
11 
10 


758 


We  find  that  laymen  should  understand  the  general  principles  involving 
written  contracts,  quieting  titles,  divorce,  damage  cases,  implied  contracts, 
oral  contracts,  settling  estates  and  court  writs.  Alderman  checked  this  type 
of  needed  legal  information  against  similar  material  found  in  twenty  text- 
books in  civics.  Assuming  that  in  courses  in  civics  the  layman  gets  his 
preparation  for  any  possible  legal  information  that  he  needs,  Alderman 
points  out  that  there  is  a  wide  disparity  between  the  type  of  informa- 
tion that  the  analysis  of  the  courts'  records  shows  is  important  and  the  type 
of  material  that  textbooks  present  about  the  courts.  Textbooks  discuss 
chiefly  such  topics  as  how  laws  are  made,  federal  laws,  constitutional  laws, 
and  the  like,  relatively  abstract  points  that  the  average  layman  will  have 
little  use  for. 

STUDY  NO.  22.  Goss,  Ralph  Ross.  What  civic  knowledge  is  needed 
by  an  Indiana  layman.  Unpublished  Master  of  Arts  Thesis,  on  file  in  the 
Library,  Univ.  of  Indiana,  Bloomington,  Ind. 

Problem.  To  determine  what  civic  knowledge  is  most  needed  by  the 
child  in  his  life  outside  the  school,  or  to  discover  the  types  of  transactions 
in  life  outside  the  school  which  require  civic  knowledge. 

Method.  Problems  involving  civics  with  which  the  average  individual 
in  life  is  actually  confronted  were  obtained  by  asking  several  classes  in  cer- 
tain public  schools  to  collect  and  bring  to  school  a  record  of  any  such 
transactions  that  any  members  of  their  family  had  had  during  the  day.  An 
outline  of  instructions  for  collecting  such  data  was  prepared  for  the  pupils. 
A  list  of  some  twenty  typical  ways  in  which  civic  knowledge  might  be 
required  was  suggested  in  the  instructions,  such  as  recording  a  deed,  taking 


The  Third  Yearbook 


267 


TABLE     71.— CLASSIFICATION 

OF 

EVERYDAY     CIVIC 

TRANSACTIONS 

Divisions  of  government 

Number  of 
transactions 

Per  cent 
of  total 

282 
204 
690 
348 
260 

15.80 

11.10 

38.90 

19.40 

14.80 

Total 

1,784 

100.00 

TABLE  72. 


-PER  CENT  OF  TEN  TEXTBOOKS  DEVOTED  TO  SIX  DIVISIONS 
OF  GOVERNMENT 


u  1 
O 

■d 
d  a, 
rt  d 

u  re 
d  h 

a  u 

1° 

W 

< 

d 

es 

u 

4> 

•0 

1 

0! 

d 

a 
0 

3 

3 
« 

'3 

O 

2.7 

Harrison 
and  Reed 

0 

•a 

M 

be 

a- 

u 

CD 

> 

< 

9 

•3 

International 

4.1 

14.3 

5.6 

9.8 

5.0 

4.8 

3.4 

2.3 

3.0 

5.50 

4.45 

56.0 

65.3 

72.4 

65.2 

59.4 

66.2 

75.0 

56.4 

52.9 

48.2 

61.70 

57.90 

State 

25.0 

7.4 

9.5 

10.0 

20.1 

14.8 

7.0 

27.5 

28.4 

15.4 

16.51 

15.10 

Municipal .  .  . 

7.4 

9.3 

6.9 

9.3 

8.3 

4.7 

7.0 

7.9 

11.6 

11.1 

8.35 

8.10 

County 

3.4 

2.9 

1.5 

2.3 

2.4 

4.7 

4.4 

2.7 

2.4 

2.5 

2.92 

2.60 

Township .... 

4.1 

.8 

4.1 

3.4 

4.8 

4.8 

4.8 

2.8 

2.4 

19.8 

5.02 

3.75 

TABLE  73.— COMPARISON  OF  MEDIAN  PER  CENT  DEVOTED  TO  EACH 
DIVISION  OF  GOVERNMENT  IN  TEXTBOOKS  AND  CIVIC  TRANS- 
ACTIONS 


Inter- 
national 

National 

State 

Municipal 

County 

Township 

Textbooks 

Civic  transactions  in  life  out- 

4.45 
0.00 

57.90 
15.80 

15.10 
11.10 

8.10 
38.90 

2.60 
19.40 

3.75 
14.80 

out  naturalization  papers,  taking  up  a  matter  with  a  Congressman,  etc. 
Eighteen  civics  classes  in  nine  different  schools  in  Jackson  County,  Indiana, 
cooperated. 

The  answers  received  were  analyzed  and  classified  under  the  major  heads 
of  conventional  civics  material,  that  is,  material  having  to  do  with  the 
following  divisions:  national,  state,  municipal,  county,  and  township  govern- 
ment. 

As  a  check  to  determine  the  extent  to  which  this  knowledge  was  provided 
for  in  civics  textbooks,  ten  textbooks  were  classified  under  similar  heads. 

Findings.  The  total  number  of  specific  situations  in  which  civic  knowl- 
edge was  required  by  the  layman  were  1784. 

Table  71  shows  the  number  of  answers  to  each  main  division  of  govern- 
ment and  also  the  percentage  to  each  major  division. 

Table  72  shows  the  per  cent  devoted  to  each  division  of  civic  materials 
and  the  average  and  median  per  cent  for  ten  commonly  used  civics  books. 

Table  73  compares  the  median  per  cent  devoted  to  each  division  in  the 
textbooks  with  civic  transactions  in  life  outside  the  schools. 


268 


Department  of  Superintendence 


The  type  and  frequency  of  civic  transactions  in  life  outside  of  school 
classified  under  national,  state,  municipal,  county,  and  township  govern- 
ment were  as  follows: 


National 

War  Savings  Stamps    100 

Income   Tax    40 

Pension   .  .  .  . 34 

Civil  Service  Examination    30 

Naturalization   Papers    30 

Election     20 

Recorded   Copyright    8 

Liberty  Loans    6 

Army     •  6 

Crop  Report    2 

Timber  Report    2 

Census   Report    2 

Red   Cross    2 

Total   282 

Municipal 

Health     118 

Bank 78 

Election     72 

Charity 68 

Beautifying   City    66 

Notary  Work 60 

Police  Protection    58 

Improvement  of  Property   54 

Transaction  with  Council    42 

Taxes    32 

Fire  Department 15 

Property  Sale    8 

Court 6 

Lawyer 4 

Will  3 

Building  and  Loan    2 

Dog  License    2 

Moving   Permit    2 

Total     690 

Township 

Transactions  with  Trustee   100 

Bank    68 

Notary    Work     24 

Justice   of   Peace    10 

Farmers   Federation    10 

Taxes  as  Related  to  Assessor  ....  8 

Assessment  of  Property   6 

Made   a  Note    6 

Bought    Bonds    4 

School   Enumeration    2 

Election     2 

Will    2 

Total   242 


State 

Insurance     74 

Auto  License   34 

Organization  of  Corporation    ....  30 

Wrote  to   State  Representative...  26 

Election     12 

Transaction    with    Governor    ....  6 

Business  with  State  Supt 6 

Matter  with  State  Officer   4 

Administratorship    4 

Wrote  to  State  Senator 2 

Fire   Marshal    2 

Examined  Tax  Law   2 

Total   204 


County 

Deed  Recorded   100 

Business  with  Co.  Supt 60 

Matter  with  Court    • 34 

Mortgage    32 

Taxes    26 

Matter  with  Clerk 24 

Matter  with   Co.   Officer    22 

Business    with    Truant    Officer    . .  8 

County   Surveyor    8 

Election    6 

County  Treasurer    4 

Assessed  by  Assessor   4 

Examine   Deed    4 

Business  with  Road   Supt 4 

Estate   Settled    2 

Insured  Property   2 

County  Coroner   2 

County  Judges 2 

Lien    Notes    2 

Contracts    2 

Total   348 


The  Third  Yearbook  269 

Transactions  of  a  local  nature  are  the  ones  that  people  use  or  that  the 
average  layman  uses  most.  For  example,  nearly  three  fourths  of  the 
transactions  reported  by  citizens  have  to  do  with  local  matters  such  as  the 
aspects  of  city,  county,  or  township  affairs.  Only  about  one  sixth  of  the 
space  in  the  commonly  used  civics  books  is  given  to  local  government. 

iVhile  this  study  is  limited  to  some  three  hundred  pupils  in  a  few  schools 
in  one  county,  it  does  give  one  some  evidence  of  specific  situations  in  civic 
knowledge  needed  by  the  layman.  It  is  but  another  means  of  finding  out 
how  the  layman  uses  social  science. 

Obviously,  these  methods  should  be  employed  over  a  larger  territory. 
With  such  results,  writers  of  school  courses  in  social  science  could  well 
consider  revision  of  their  materials  in  terms  of  the  obvious  need  of  training 
and  knowledge  having  to  do  with  local  government. 

III.  Studies  That  Are  Suggestive  for  Analysis  of  the  Activities  of  People  or 
Current  Modes  of  Living 

STUDY  NO.  23.  Harap,  Henry.  Education  of  the  consumer.  New 
York,  The  Macmillan  Company,   1924. 

Problem.  To  discover  the  things  that  people  do  or  the  economic  activ- 
ities in  which  they  engage — the  essential  habits,  skills,  knowledge,  and  atti- 
tudes involved  in  certain  economic  aspects  of  life,  particularly  having  to  do 
with  unspecialized  practical  activities  in  the  household. 

Method.  Information  was  gathered  as  to  important  household  needs. 
An  effort  was  made  to  discover  what  is  wrong  with  the  habits  of  selection 
and  purchase  of  household  articles.  Census  reports  and  various  reports 
summarized  in  trade  journals,  were  used  as  well  as  an  analysis  undertaken 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Labor  on  the  selection  and  purchases 
involved  in  a  nation-wide  survey  of  10,000  families  of  the  most  important 
household  articles.  The  research  of  students  of  home  economics  concerning 
food,  clothing,  and  household  materials  was  utilized. 

Findings.  There  is  a  great  discrepancy  between  the  economic  habits  and 
information  that  one  ought  to  possess  about  household  matters  and  the 
actual  information  and  habits  that  surveys  of  consumers'  needs  in  the  house- 
hold show  that  householders  possess.  Quantitative  data  concerning  the  edu- 
cational needs  of  the  consumer  are  presented.  These  topics  illustrate  the 
kind  of  data  gathered: 

Food  Consumption 

The  chief  foods  of  the  nation 

Food  selection  based  upon  quantity  consumed 

Food  selection  based  upon  the  amount  of  money  spent  for  chief  food  commodities 

Food  selection  to  meet  the  daily  energy  requirement 

Selection  of  food  to  furnish  the  requirements  of. proteins,  fats,  and  mineral  salts 

The  buying  of  food : 

In  large  quantities 

In  packages 

For  cash  or  on  credit 
Waste  in  the  use  of  food 


270  Department  of  Superintendence 


Housing 

The  housing  conditions  of  the  nation  as  revealed  by  surveys 

Housing  standards 

Home  ownership 

Tenements  and  education 

Overcrowding 

Rent  and  education: 

Rent  and  income 

What  is  fair  rental 

Rent  and  taxes 

Rent  and  the  budget 
Ventilation 

Household  Materials 

The  chief  household  commodities 

Building  materials 

Furniture 

Paint  and  varnish 

Metal  products,  tools,  and  hardware 

Paper  products 

Leather  goods 

Floor  coverings 

Cleansing  and  polishing  preparations 

Brushes  and  brooms 

Phonographs 

Automobiles 

Household  Skills 

How  household  skills  were  determined 

Household  skills  discovered  in  surveys 

Skills  suggested  by  the  chief  commodities  consumed  in  the  home 

Skills  having  to  do  with: 

Carpentry 

Painting 

Plastering 

Glazing 

Plumbing 

Housecleaning 

Decoration 

Gardening 

Fuel  Consumption 

The  chief  household  fuels  and  their  comparative  importance 

Relative  cost  of  fuels 

Relative  heating  values 

Fuel  measurement  and  calculation 

Clothing 

Comparison  of  the  actual  with  standard  consumption  of  clothing  by  the  people  of 

the  United  States 
Clothing  in  the  budget 
Qualitative  standards  of  clothing 

In  the  main,  two  classes  of  material  were  utilized :  First,  standards  of 
what"  we  ought  to  know  and  do  about  consumers'  needs ;  and  second,  scien- 
tific studies  of  what  we  actually  do  know  and  do  concerning  these  same 
needs.  In  brief,  he  implies  that  the-  curriculum  will  consider  specifically  in 
each  instance  the  economic  habits  and  information  that  will  permit  the 
school   to   "move"   pupils  from  ascertained   deficiencies  up'  to  ascertained 


The  Third  Yearbook 


271 


TABLE  74.— RELATION  OF  THE  QUALITY  OF  VEGETABLES  CONSUMED 
TO  THEIR  FOOD  VALUE  AND  PRICE 


Vegetable 


Potatoes 

Sweet  Potatoes 

Tomatoes 

Cabbages 

Onions  (dry) .  . 
Cantaloupes. . . 
Watermelons .  . 

Celery 

Cucumbers .... 

Lettuce 

Beans  (green) . . 
Peas  (green) . . . 

Asparagus 

Peppers  (green) 

Spinach 

Carrots 


Value  of  pro- 

duct 

Rank 

(Thousand 

Dollars) 

639,441 

1 

124,844 

2 

38,675 

3 

21,848 

4 

21,387 

5 

10,767 

6 

10,466 

7 

9,462 

8 

8,579 

9 

8,535 

10 

8,031 

11 

7,165 

12 

5,102 

13 

3,079 

14 

1,716 

15 

1,563 

16 

Composite 
food  value 


414 
374 
192 
367 
295 


350 
153 
299 
472 
475 
368 

810 
338 


Rank 


12 

10 

3 

2 

6 

i 

9 


Price  per 
pound 
(cents) 


4.0 
8.0 


5.0 
6.0 


15.0 

'7.6 
10.0 
10.0 


3.3 

8.0 


Rank 


10 

5 
8 
9 


s  Value  of  products  taken  from  United  States  Census  Reports,  Volume  X,  pp.  62-82. 
_  b  Composite  food  value  from  Sherman,  H.  C.  and  Gillett,  L.  H.:  Adequacy  and  economy  of  some 
city  dietaries,  p.  25.     The  composite  value  was  obtained  by  assigning  energy  40  points  and  15  each  to 
protein,  phosphorus   calcium,  and  iron.     The  emphasis  here  is  on  mineral  salts. 

standards  in  so  far  as  the  abilities  will  permit.  Table  74  illustrates  the 
discrepancy  between  what  people  actually  eat  and  what  they  should  eat. 

Note  that  the  cheapest  vegetable  having  the  greatest  food  value — spinach 
— ranks  next  to  the  last  in  the  actual  consumption  and  that  peas  and  beans, 
that  rank  second  and  third  in  food  value,  rank  eleventh  and  twelfth  in 
consumption.  On  the  other  hand,  potatoes  rank  first  in  consumption,  fourth 
in  food  value,  and  second  in  cheapness. 

Table  75  shows  the  relation  of  quantity  of  fruits  consumed  to  food  value. 

Note  that  apples  rank  first  in  consumption  but  twelfth  in  food  value ; 
and  that  figs  which  rank  first  in  food  value  and  dates  which  rank  second, 


TABLE  75. 


-RELATION  OF  QUALITY  OF  FRUITS  CONSUMED  TO  FOOD 

VALUES 


Fruit 


Value  of  products 

consumed  in  1920 

(Dollars) 


Rank 


Composite 
food 
value 


Rank 


Apples 

Grapes 

Peaches 

Oranges 

Strawberries 

Pears 

Plums  and  prunes 

Bananas 

Apricots 

Currants 

Cranberries 

Figs 

Dates 

Lemons 

Pineapples 


241,911,000 

102,344,000 

96,000,000 

58,039,000 

38,000,000 

24,798,000 

20,962,000 

19,088,000 

9,700,000 

6,076,000 

5,700,000 

4,883,000 

2,088,000 

1,717,000 

1,423,000 


156 
266 
177 
228 
355 
228 
337 
236 


1,782 

1,240 

228 

253 


»  Value  of  products  taken  from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.     Weather,  Crops,  and 
Markets.     May  13,  1922.     p.  402. 

b  Composite  foetid  value  taken  from  Sherman,  H.  C.  and  Gillett,  L.  H.,  Op.  cit.  p.  25. 


272  Department  of  Superintendence 


are  respectively  twelfth  and  thirteenth  in  consumption — that  is,  the  most 
nutritive  fruits  are  very  much  underconsumed. 

In  a  similar  way,  other  violations  are  disclosed  of  what  scientific  dietary 
studies  indicate  we  should  eat.  For  example,  there  is  a  marked  under- 
consumption of  vegetables  and  marked  over-consumption  of  meat. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  things  about  this  study  is  that  out  of  it  arises 
definite,  specific  objectives  in  terms  of  scientific  evidence. 

These  are  among  the  objectives  concerned  with  the  consumption  of 
vegetables  and  fruits  as  illustrated,  by  Tables  74  and  75: 

To  give  the  vegetables  their  proper  place  in  the  thinking  and  habits  of  the 
food  plan  of  the  people  of  our  nation. 

To  use  and  to  think  of  potatoes  primarily  as  starch  foods. 

To  use  and  to  think  of  the  green  vegetables  primarily  as  foods  rich  in  calcium, 
phosphorus,  and  iron  salts. 

To  use  and  to  think  of  the  legumes  as  rich  in  protein  foods,  with  an  abundance 
of  calcium  and  iron. 

To  cultivate  the  habit  of  using  spinach  as  a  rich  and  cheap  food. 

To  use  tomatoes  less  in  bulk  and  more  for  flavoring. 

To  use  more  dried  beans  and  peas. 

To  know  the  effect  of  home  and  commercial  canning  on  beans,  peas,  and 
tomatoes. 

To  know  exactly  what  place  fruits  occupy  in  the  food  plan. 

To  use  and  think  of  raisins  and  prunes  as  foods  rich  in  iron. 

To  consume  more  figs,  dates,  raisins,  and  prunes. 

To  know  the  relation  between  fresh  and  dried  fruits  as  well  as  their  comparative 
quality  and  economy. 

To  know  the  relation  between  fresh  and  canned  fruits  as  well  as. their  com- 
parative quality  and  economy. 

In  like  manner  the  data  relative  to  furniture  woods  show  that  "the  aver- 
age consumer  has  no  notion  of  the  materials  which  commonly  go  into  the 
manufacture  of  a  chair  or  a  bookcase." 

The  data  also  show  a  marked  discrepancy  between  actual  trade  practices 
in  the  manufacture  of  furniture  and  the  advertisements  as  to  what  furniture 
contains.  They  illustrate  the  fact  that  these  are  probably  some  of  the  neces- 
sary objectives: 

To  know  the  common  woods  which  enter  into  the  furniture  of  the  nation — 
namely,  oak,  sap  gum,  red  gum,  maple,  birch,  chestnut,  and  poplar. 

To  know  the  relative  cost  of  the  chief  furniture  woods. 

To  identify  a  veneer. 

To, adjust  the  budget  so  as  to  be  able  to  buy  durable  furniture  instead  of  cheap 
furniture. 

To  know  the  relative  durability  of  the  chief  furniture  woods. 

To  know  what  constitutes  a  complete  equipment  of  furniture  in  the  dining-room, 
living  room,  bedroom,  and   kitchen. 

The  most  important  thing  that  can  be  said  about  this  study  is  that  it 
give:;  one  detailed,  semi-scientific  information  by  which  one  can  determine 
specifically  the  particularized  bits  of  information,  habits,  skills,  and  attitudes 
thaJ:  must  be  taught  about  household  matters.     It  is  an  important  theory 


The  Third  Yearbook  273 


of  the  curriculum  making  that  a  careful  study  of  known  standards  of  habits 
and  information  should  be  made  and  the  degree  to  which  persons  possess 
or  do  not  possess  these  basic  skills  and  information  should  also  be  dis- 
covered. The  curriculum  consists,  according  to  this  point  of  view,  of  that 
body  of  knowledge  and  those  skills,  attitudes,  and  appreciations  by  which 
pupils  can  be  made  ready  to  engage  efficiently  in  socially  desirable  activities. 

STUDY  NO.  24.  Bobbitt,  Franklin.  How  to  make  a  curriculum.  The 
Social  Studies.    Boston,  Houghton  Mifflin,  1924.     Chapter  VII. 

Problem.  To  set  forth  the  abilities  involved  in  the  things  that  citizens 
do.  Bobbitt  says  a  good  citizen  "is  one  who  can  perform  the  fifty,  the  five 
hundred,  or  the  five  thousand  things  which  the  good  citizen  is  called  upon 
by  his  social  position  to  perform."  His  problem  was  to  discover  what  are 
the  things  that  a  citizen  has  to  do  in  terms  of  the  abilities  that  we  should 
be  conscious  of  for  the  efficient  performance  of  these  citizenship  duties. 

Method.  Twelve  years  of  cooperative  effort  on  the  part  of  some  fifteen 
hundred  members  of  graduate  classes  in  "The  Curriculum"  conducted  by 
the  writer  at  the  University  of  Chicago,  resulted  in  the  compilation  of  a  list 
of  abilities.  After  critical  examination  by  twelve  hundred  high  school  teach- 
ers, this  list  was  used  as  a  basis  for  determining  the  objectives  in  the  Junior 
and  Senior  High  School  Departments  in  Los  Angeles,  California.  It 
represents,  then,  the  group  judgment  of  nearly  three  thousand  rather  experi- 
enced people  plus  the  judgment  of  one  of  the  foremost  students  of  the  cur- 
riculum. 

Findings.  The  following  excerpt  illustrates  the  detailed  abilities  listed : 
Ability  to  think,  feel,  act,  and  react  as  an  efficient,  intelligent,  sympathetic, 
and  loyal  member  of  the  large  social  group.  Large-group  or  citizenship 
consciousness.  Sense  of  membership  in  the  total  social  group,  rather  than 
in  some  special  class.  Large-group  local  consciousness  when  dealing  with 
local  problems;  large-group  state  consciousness  when  dealing  with  state 
responsibilities;  large-group  national  consciousness  when  dealing  with  na- 
tional matters ;  large-group  world  consciousness  when  dealing  with  man- 
kind's responsibilities  for  world  cooperation  and  management. 

The  ability  of  the  citizen  to  do  his  individual  share  in  performing  those 
social  functions  for  which  all  citizens  are  equally  responsible  in  the  establish- 
ment, organization,  maintenance,  protection,  oversight,  and  control  of  the 
specialized  groups  and  agencies  into  which  society  is  differentiated  for 
effectiveness  of  action.  The  young  citizen-in-training  is  to  acquire  those 
abilities  which,  when  adulthood  is  reached,  will  enable  him  to  perform  the 
following  things  in  connection  with  the  several  specialized  social  agencies: 

a.  Sharing  fully  in  an  informed  and  impelling  public  opinion,  which  looks  to 
the  general  welfare  in  its  control  of  each  service  agency. 

b.  Setting  up  in  public  opinion  and  maintaining  the  standards  of  results  to  be 
achieved  by  each  service  agency. 

c.  Seeing  that  each  service  agency  aims  at  the  standards  of  results  that  are 
sanctioned  by  public  opinion. 


274  Department  of  Superintendence 


d.  Seeing  that  the  service  agency  employs  procedures  which  are  effective  in  pro- 
ducing the  desired  results  and  which  are  economical  in  social  costs. 

e.  Seeing  that  the  material  working  conditions  necessary  for  the  most  effective 
and  economical  procedures  are  supplied. 

f.  Seeing  that  each  service  agency  is  provided  with  personnel  and  organization 
of  the  kind  required  by  the  procedures  to  be  employed;  and  properly  rewarded. 

g.  Directly  or  indirectly  selecting  or  approving  the  selection  of  the  personnel 
of  the  agency. 

h.  Supplying  the  funds  necessary  for  the  efficient,  and  in  all  ways  proper,  con- 
duct of  the  agency. 

i.  Currently  or  periodically  examining,  directly  or  through  publicity  reports,  or 
both,  into  the  results  achieved  by  the  agency,  and  the  degree  of  economy  employed. 

j.  Where  results  achieved  and  degree  of  economy  employed  comply  with 
standards  of  expectation,  approving  and  properly  rewarding  the  labors  of  those 
who  have  thus  given  good  service. 

k.  Where  results  do  not  reach  the  standards  of  expectation,  or  where  there  has 
been  waste,  finding  the  causes  of  the  deficiency,  and  removing  them  as  expeditiously 
as  practicable. 

The  abilities  which  should  be  acquired  are: 

Ability  to  organize    and   use   social  facts   effectively  in   arriving   at  conclusions. 

The  ability  to  use  general  principles  in  analyzing  and  considering  economic, 
political,  and  other  social  problems. 

Ability  to  discern  one's  individual  rights  in  the  quantity  of  one's  services  to  the 
general  group.     Ability  to  read  one's  rights  as  things  earned. 

Ability  to  see  social  relations  so  clearly  as  to  discern  the  duties  of  others,  indi- 
viduals and  groups,  within  the  social  whole. 

Ability  to  see  social  relations  so  clearly  as  to  discern  the  rights  of  others  within 
the  social  whole. 

Ability,  disposition,  and  habit  of  diversified  observation  of  men,  things,  and 
affairs  as  an  enjoyable  and  fruitful  leisure  occupation. 

Ability,  disposition,  and  habit  of  abundant  and  diversified  reading  as  a  means 
of  enjoyable  and  fruitful  indirect  observation  of  men,  things,  and  affairs;  of 
vicarious  participation  in  those  affairs;  and  of  entering  into  the  thoughts  and  moods 
of  others. 

Ability  to  participate  in  the  more  formal  public  discussion  of  matters  of  current 
interest  as  an  enjoyable  and  fruitful  spare-time  occupation. 

Ability,  habit,  and  disposition  to  follow  the  leadership  of  the  world's  men  of 
vision. 

Ability  to  read  the  written  or  printed  expression  of  others  with  proper  ease, 
speed,  and  comprehension. 

Ability  to  use  dictionary,  encyclopedia,  atlas,  handbooks,  card  catalogues,  reader's 
guides,  indexes,  and  other  library  and  reference  helps  in  finding  facts  or  materials 
wanted. 

Ability  to  read  and  interpret  facts  expressed  by  commonly  used  types  of  graphs, 
diagrams,  and  statistical  tables. 

Ability  to  express  facts  by  means  of  graphs,  diagrams,   and  statistical  tables. 

Ability  to  use  maps  with  ease  and  understanding. 

Besides  these  "abilities"  Bobbitt  lists  in  detail  the  general  principles  and 
assumptions  of  the  activities  involved  in  the  training  of  citizenship.  This 
analysis  of  activities  of  citizenship  is  a  helpful  list  for  curriculum  makers  to 
start  with. 


The  Third  Yearbook  275 


IV.  Studies  That  Endeavor  to  Evaluate  the  Recreative  or  Leisure  Values  of 

the  Social  Sciences 

STUDY  NO.  25.  Horn,  Ernest.  "A  study  of  library  withdrawals  and 
books  published,"  found  in  The  application  of  methods  of  research  to  mak- 
ing the  course  of  study  in  history.  Twenty-second  Yearbook  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  II.     1914.     pp.  235-239. 

Rugg,  Earle.  "A  further  study  of  library  withdrawals  and  books  pub- 
lished," found  in  Studies  in  curriculum  construction  in  the  social  sciences. 
Unpublished  Ph.  D.  Dissertation  on  file  in  the  Library,  Teacher's  College, 
Columbia  University,  New  York  City.     1923. 

Problem.  To  check  the  theory  that  the  "layman"  reads  history  for 
recreation  or  voluntarily.  The  proportion  of  books  published  was  sought 
on  the  theory  that  publishers  tend  to  restrict  the  number  of  books  of  a  given 
class,  such  as  history  or  science  or  fine  arts,  etc.  to  the  "buying"  demands 
of  the  public.  An  analysis  of  book  withdrawals  from  libraries  was  made  to 
see  in  what  proportion  people  voluntarily  read  books  in  the  various  fields  of 
knowledge. 

Method.  To  ascertain  what  books  were  withdrawn,  an  examination  was 
made  of  the  records  of  the  central  and  branch  libraries  of  New  York  City 
for  1913,  a  year  which  was  free  "from  unusual  influences  which  might 
increase  or  decrease  the  amount  of  history  normally  read."  An  analysis 
was  made  of  the  proportion  of  books  published  of  various  classes  (1913)  as 
summarized  in  The  World  Almanac  for  1915. 

Jordan  in  his  investigation  of  Children's  interests  in  reading  lends  evi- 
dence to  the  theory  that  there  is  an  interest  in  reading  history  voluntarily 
for  he  shows  that  in  the  reading  of  such  books,  aside  from  fiction,  the  num- 
ber is  large  when  compared  to  other  types  of  non-fiction. 

Rugg  sent  out  a  question  blank  to  fifty  representative  public  libraries 
throughout  the  country  asking  for  their  circulation  statistics  for  one  year  in 
each  of  these  three  groups:  a.  A  year  before  the  war  such  as  1911,  1912, 
or  1913;  b.  A  year  during  the  war  such  as  1915,  1916,  or  1917;  and  c. 
A  year  after  the  war  such  as  1920,  1921,  or  1922. 

Most  public  libraries  are  classifying  their  books  according  to  the  so- 
called  Dewey-Dccimal  System.  According  to  this  system  the  books  num- 
bered in  the  100's  pertain  to  philosophy;  in  the  200's  to  religion;  in  the 
500's,  natural  science;  600  to  applied  science;  700  to  fine  arts;  800  to 
literature ;  and  it  also  so  happens  that  the  books  on  phases  of  social 
science — history,  government,  economics,  sociology,  are  classified  for  the 
most  part  within  either  the  300's  or  the  900's.  Hence,  librarians  filling  in 
the  number  of  books  under  each  of  the  Dewey-Decimal  classes  were  asked 
to  present  the  evidence  from  which  could  be  determined  the  percentage  of 
books  in  various  classes  read. 

In  order  to  exclude  as  much  as  possible  the  reading  of  such  books  required 
by  schools  of  high  school  and  college  pupils  two  other  questions  were  asked : 

1.  In  your  opinion,  is  any  considerable  proportion  of  the  social  science  books  in 
the  300's  and  900's  withdrawn  by  school  pupils  for  required  readings  or  by  persons 


276 


Department  of  Superintendence 


gathering  information  for  programs   in   civic  organizations?     If   so,   estimate  the 
percentage  of  such  withdrawals. 

2.  In  your  opinion,  would  your  circulation  statistics  for  books  in  the  300's  and 
900's  compared  with  the  other  classes  such  as  the  100's,  200's,  500's,  etc.  warrant 
the  conclusion  that  the  "lay"  public  in  your  community  voluntarily  reads  history, 
geography,  economics,  government,  and  sociology? 

Findings.  Table  76  compares  the  number  of  books  published  and  with- 
drawn for  reading  for  the  years  1913  and  1921. 

In  the  study  of  books  withdrawn  from  public  libraries,  fiction  was  ex- 
cluded so  the  tables  below  indicate  only  non-fiction.  About  60  per  cent  of 
the  books  withdrawn  from  public  libraries  are  fiction.  Hence,  this  study 
included  about  40  per  cent  of  the  entire  number  of  books  withdrawn  from 
public  libraries. 


TABLE  76.— COMPARISON  OF  BOOKS  (NON-FICTION)  PUBLISHED  AND 
AND  WITHDRAWN  FROM  REPRESENTATIVE  CITY  LIBRARIES,  CLAS- 
SIFIED ON  THE  DEWEY  DECIMAL  SYSTEM 


Subject 


Average  per  cent  of  non- 
fiction  total  library  with- 
drawals 


Average  per  cent  of  books 
published  1913  and  1921 


Philosophy .... 

Religion 

Philology 

Natural  Science 
Applied  Science 

Fine  Arts 

Literature 

Social  Science. . 


4.3 

3.9 

1.7 

5.6 

11.5 

9.8 

22.0 

40.2 


3.0 

7.4 
2.8 
7.0 
17.2 
4.0 
11.5 
29.2 


Fourteen  out  of  sixteen  public  libraries,  in  answer  to  the  question,  Do 
withdrawals  represent  required  reading  of  students?,  replied  "Yes,  in  about 
51  per  cent  of  the  cases."  Sixteen  out  of  seventeen  libraries  announce  that 
the  "lay  public"  voluntarily  read  social  science  books. 

This  study  shows  that  about  four  out  of  the  every  ten  non-fiction  books 
withdrawn  are  books  dealing  with  the  social  sciences  and  that  half  of  these, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  librarians,  represent  what  might  be  termed  voluntary 
reading.  All  librarians  except  one  tend  to  support  the  claim  that  there  is 
a  leisure  value  or  objective  to  be  sought  in  the  teaching  of  the  social  sciences. 
There  is  a  marked  similarity  between  the  proportion  of  books  withdrawn  in 
each  class  of  the  Dewey-Decimal  and  the  proportion  of  books  published  in 
these  classes. 


Major  Conclusions  to  Be  Drawn  from  a  Study  of  This  Report 

1.  Those  facts,  topics,  and  problems  that  are  seemingly  required  fre- 
quently or  universally,  or  are  crucial  to  life  needs  are,  relatively  speaking, 
only  a  small  fraction  of  the  sum  total  of  possible  facts,  topics,  and  problems. 

2.  There  is  a  better  basis  for  including  specific  facts,  topics,  or  problems 
in  the  school  curriculum  when  they  are  discovered  to  be  socially  valuable 
by  two  or  more  investigations  than  when  such  facts,  topics,  or  problems 
are  included  principally  on  the  judgment  of  the  author  of  a  textbook. 


The  Third  Yearbook  277 

3.  While  these  investigations  deal  principally  with  evidence  concerning 
useful  facts,  topics,  and  problems,  one  should  bear  in  mind  that  certain 
materials  may  be  valuable  for  other  reasons.  But  any  one  who  wishes  to 
justify  the  inclusion  of  content  besides  that  selected  upon  standards  of 
social  needs  herein  illustrated  should  be  obligated  to  report  objective  evi- 
dence to  show  why  such  content  should  be  taught.  This  specifically  ap- 
plies to  the  justification  of  material  for  disciplinary,  for  cultural,  or  for 
conventional  values. 

4.  The  rather  marked  similarity  of  the  evidence  of  independent  investi- 
gations, made  upon  differing  criteria,  gives  one  relatively  impersonal  evi- 
dence to  state  what  content  should  be  included  in  the  social  science  cur- 
riculum. 

5.  The  studies  in  Section  I  of  this  chapter  give  examples  of  how  one 
may  discover  problems  of  contemporary  society.  While  the  school  is 
obligated  to  train  citizens  to  meet  problems  and  activities  of  today,  it  is 
further  obligated  to  equip  individuals  to  adjust  themselves  to  a  dynamic 
society.  It  is  probable  that  the  school  should  endeavor  to  predict  not  only 
the  training  that  citizens  need  now  but  also  that  training  which  they  will 
require  to  meet  the  problems,  issues,  and  modes  of  living  some  twenty  or 
thirty  years  hence.  The  best  source  for  statements  of  persistent  and  in- 
sistent problems  and  issues  in  a  dynamic  society  is  to  be  found  in  the  pub- 
lished works  of  specialists  in  the  study  of  society,  in  the  investigations  and 
conclusions  of  the  men  and  women  who  have  both  detailed  theoretical 
acquaintance  and  practical  knowledge  of  their  field. 

6.  The  relative  probability  with  which  one  meets  references  to  facts, 
topics,  and  problems  is  probably  best  evidenced  in  analysis  of  the  chief  and 
almost  the  exclusive  reading  of  the  layman — the  periodical  press.  Although 
there  are  limitations  in  the  use  of  this  method,  such  as  the  fact  that  widely 
read  periodicals  tend  to  contain  few  allusions  to  these  facts,  is  it  not  the 
obligation  of  the  school  to  give  young  citizens  detailed  analyses  and  practice 
in  generalization  about  facts,  topics,  and  problems,  so  that  they  can  inter- 
pret them  more  wisely  and  form  better  judgments?  These  citizens  make 
up  the  mysterious  something  that  we  call  public  opinion.  Their  analyses 
and  opinions  tend  to  determine  what  is  done  to  promote  or  hinder  the  prog- 
ress of  civilization. 

7.  Not  only  must  curriculum  makers  provide  for  practice  in  problem 
solving  about  socially  valuable  content  but  also  they  must  provide  oppor- 
tunities for  the  development  of  sufficient  skill  in  the  performance  of  the 
duties  and  the  activities  of  a  citizen.  There  is  available  some  evidence  con- 
cerning what  citizens  should  do  that  should  be  included  in  the  curriculum. 

8.  The  studies  that  tell  in  some  detail  what  is  now  taught  should  be 
studied  so  that  one  will  have  sound  criteria  bases  for  the  rejection  or  con- 
tinued inclusion  of  content  of  the  social  sciences.  The  curriculum  consists 
of  that  information,  those  skills,  attitudes,  and  ideals  that  should  be  taught 
in  a  way  to  move  pupils  from  known  deficiencies  to  scientifically  determined 
standards,  in  so  far  as  their  abilities,  interests,  and  capacities  permit. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR 

W.  W.  Charters,  University  of  Pittsburgh,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania,  Chairman 

MOST  OF  the  curriculum  studies  in  language  and  grammar  are 
reported  in  Part  I  of  the  Sixteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  So- 
ciety for  the  Study  of  Education,  in  a  section  by  W.  W.  Charters 
entitled  Minimum  Essentials  in  Elementary  Language  and  Grammar.  To 
these  are  added  a  few  others  reported  in  Curriculum  Construction,  by  the 
same  author.  An  additional  number,  which  have  appeared  since  the  publi- 
cation of  the  foregoing,  are  added  in  this  report. 

For  purposes  of  clarity,  we  shall  adopt  the  question  and  answer  form 
and  proceed  without  preliminary  discussion  to  the  description  of  the 
studies. 

1.  What  are  the  objectives  of  elementary  language  and  grammar  courses? 

In  the  studies,  no  distinction  has  been  made  between  elementary  and  ad- 
vanced courses.  The  assumption  seems  to  have  been  that  those  courses 
which  deal  with  common  errors  should  be  considered  elementary  courses. 

One  statement  and  two  studies  of  objectives  are  reported.  The  assump- 
tion is  made  by  Charters  in  the  Sixteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society 
for  the  Study  of  Education  that  the  function  of  the  course  in  grammar  is  to 
give  a  rational  basis  for  the  elimination  of  the  language  errors  of  school 
children. 

One  study  of  the  objectives  of  language  has  been  made  by  Searsdn,  which 
is  summarized  in  Study  No.  1.  His  object  is  to  determine  just  what  sorts 
of  language  skills  seem  necessary  for  men  in  various  occupations.  Another 
study  of  objectives  of  English  is  reported  by  Charles  Pendleton,  and  is  de- 
scribed in  Study  No.  2.  A  third  study  is  reported  by  Franklin  Bobbitt  in 
his  book  How  to  Make  a  Curriculum.  These  are  the  objectives  derived 
by  the  high  school  teachers  of  Los  Angeles  by  the  use  of  methods  somewhat 
similar  to  those  used  by  Pendleton.    These  are  described  in  Study  No.  3. 

2.  What  is  the  technical  content  of  language  and  grammar? 

On  the  assumption  that  one  function  of  elementary  language  is  to  cor- 
rect errors  of  oral  and  written  speech,  several  investigators  have  studied  the 
errors  of  school  children.    These  are  tabulated  in  Table  77. 

The  methods  of  collection  varied  in  some  details  and  are  described 
in  the  Sixteenth  Yearbook  and  in  Curriculum  Construction,  except  the 
study  of  Sunne,  which  follows  as  Study  No.  3.  The  general  conclusions 
concerning  oral  errors  are  as  follows: 

"1.  All  the  investigators  agree  in  the  finding  that  errors  in  verbs  are 
most  frequent,  constituting  as  they  do  about  sixty  per  cent  of  the  grammati- 
cal errors,  except  Randolph,  whose  stenographic  reports  show  the  verbs  to 
be  about  ten.  , 

[278] 


The  Third  Yearbook 


279 


"2.  Because  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  when  errors  become  very  com- 
mon they  cease  to  be  thought  serious  and  in  course  of  time  are  accepted  as 
good  form,  the  query  naturally  arises  as  to  whether  or  not  the  most  common 
are  considered  to  be  the  most  serious.  Obviously,  the  most  common  are 
serious  from  the  point  of  view  of  frequency,  but  they  may  not  attach  so 
deep  a  stigma  to  the  user  as  do  some  much  less  common  errors. 

"With  this  in  mind,  the  teachers  of  Pittsburgh  were  asked  to  list  the  ten 
errors  which  each  considered  to  be  the  worst.  These  were  compiled.  The 
relative  frequency  with  which  each  was  mentioned  by  teachers  and  the  pro- 
portional percentage  which  each  was  of  the  total  'worst  list'  was  compiled. 

TABLE  77.— LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR  STUDIES 


Investiga- 
tor 

School 

Oral  or 

written 

Language 

or 
grammar 

Oral 

errors 

Written  errors 

Method  of 

Pages 

Errors 

collection 

Connersville,  Ind... 
Kansas  City,  Mo.. 

Northern  Illinois. . . 

Boise,  Idaho 

Cincinnati,  Ohio. . . 
Speyer  School.N.Y. 

Oral 
Both 

Both 

Oral 

Oral 

Oral 

Both 
Written 

Both 

Oral 

Oral 
Oral 
Oral 

Written 

Both 

Grammar 
Grammar 

226 

5,883 

Charters 
and  Miller 

Thompson. 

4,819 

10,554 

By  teachers, 
and  from  writ- 
ten work. 

Both 

Both 

Both 

Grammar 
Both 

Grammar 

Grammar 

Grammar 

Grammar 

Both 

Both 

Both 

andfrom  writ- 
ten work. 

2,268 
2,954 

Not  given 

with  prelimi- 
nary study. 

Diebel. 
Randolph. . 

report. 

Kansas  City,  Mo.. . 
Bonham,  Texas.  .  . 

Hibbing,  Minn. .  .  . 

Detroit,  Mich 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

Kansas  City,  Mo... 

112 

Marshall 

500 

500 

10,191 
11,207 
25,376 

work  of  third 
grade. 

and  from  writ- 
ten work. 

and  from  writ- 
ten work. 

5,538 

2,947 

work. 

and  from  writ- 
ten work. 

This  percentage  was  compared  with  similar  percentages  of  frequency  of 
occurrence  of  the  error.  It  was  found  for  41  specific  items  that  the  correla- 
tion between  the  frequency  of  mention  by  teachers  as  being  one  of  ten 
worst  errors,  with  frequency  of  occurrence,  was  .63  by  the  Spearman  Foot 
rule.  This  is  fairly  high  and  suggests  that,  in  general,  the  gravity  follows 
the  frequency  when  measured  in  this  rough  way. 

"The  twelve  errors  in  which  there  was  the  widest  divergence  between 
frequency  of  occurrence  and  frequency  of  mention  by  the  teachers  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes.  Five  errors  were,  in  the  opinion  of  the  teachers, 
much  worse  than  they  were  frequent.  The  use  of  was  for  were  was  ranked 
30.5  in  the  frequency  of  error  list,  but  in  the  teachers'  opinion  was  second 


280  Department  of  Superintendence 

to  worst;  learn  for  teach  (18)  frequency,  (36.5)  gravity;  that  there  (4), 
(15.5);  double  comparatives  (26),  (34.5),  and  them  there  (20),  (27). 
In  seven  extreme  cases  the  reverse  was  true.  The  teachers  regarded  the 
errors  not  as  bad  as  they  were  frequent.  Ain't  got  ranked  twenty-eighth  in 
seriousness  in  teachers'  opinions,  but  ninth  in  frequency  of  occur- 
rence; give  for  gave  (31.5),  (15.5)  ;  is  for  are  (16),  (6)  ;  misuse  of  me  as 
in  It  is  me  (22.5),  (14)  ;  wrong  sequence  of  pronouns  as  in  Everyone  must 
do  their  work  (36),  (28)  ;  come  for  came  (18),  (11);  and  will  for  shall 
(31.5),   (24.5). 

"3.  In  Pittsburgh,  twenty-three  specific  errors  with  a  frequency  of  over 
200  constitute  56  per  cent  of  the  total.  These,  with  their  frequencies  in  a 
total  of  25,676  errors,  are  seen  in  Table  78. 

Table  78 — The  Twenty-three  Most  Frequent  Errors  in  Pittsburgh 

was  for  were 1555  errors 

seen  for  saw 1513  errors 

ain't    1361  errors 

can   for   may 1150  errors 

done  for  did 895  errors 

is    for    are 777  errors 

don't   for   doesn't 721  errors 

this  here   ,- 684  errors 

John,    he    went 671  errors 

didn't  have  no 531  errors 

them    things 479  errors 

that    there 472  errors 

ain't  got 443  errors 

have    got 439  errors 

ain't  got  no 435  errors 

come  for   came 350  errors 

it  was  {is,  ain't)   me 340  errors 

why,  there  was ' 330  errors 

didn't  do  nothing 302  errors 

lay  for  lie 280  errors 

off  for  from 276  errors 

went  for  gone 245  errors 

give  for  gave 202  errors 

"4.  Comparison  between  percentages  of  error  in  Kansas  City,  Detroit, 
Hibbing,  and  Pittsburgh  is  given  in  Table  79.  The  two  items  which  are 
listed  in  Pittsburgh  alone  are  due  to  the  fact  that  errors  in  language  rather 
than  errors  in  grammar  were  reported  by  the  teachers.  The  three  items 
mentioned  in  Hibbing  alone  present  certain  interesting  facts.  The  use  of 
adverbs  instead  of  negative  verbs  is  illustrated  by  /  never  done  it  for  I  didn't 
do  it.-  Words  omitted  are  found  in  such  sentences  as,  /  go  basement  and 
Mother  went  Chisholm. 

"This  table  should  be  read  as  follows:  The  error,  'The  subject  of  the 
verb  not  in  the  nominative  case,'  constitutes  4  per  cent  of  the  total  of  5883 
errors  reported  in  Kansas  City,  4  per  cent  of  the  11,207  errors  reported  in 


The  Third  Yearbook 


281 


TABLE  79.— COMPARISON  OF  PERCENTAGES  IN  ORAL  ERRORS  IN 
KANSAS  CITY,  DETROIT,  HIBBING,  AND  PITTSBURGH 


Per  cent 


K.  C. 


H. 


Subject  of  the  verb  not  in  the  nominative  case 

Predicate  nominative  not  in  the  nominative  case 

Object  of  the  verb  or  preposition  not  in  the  objective  case. . .  . 

Wrong  form  of  pronoun 

First  personal  pronoun  standing  first 

Failure  of  a  pronoun  to  agree  with  its  antecedent 

Confusion  of  demonstrative  adjective  and  personal  pronoun. . .  . 
Failure  of  a  verb  to  agree  with  its  subject  in  number  and  person. 

Confusion  of  past  and  present  tenses 

Confusion  of  past  tense  and  past  participle 

Wrong  tense  form 

Wrong  verb 

Incorrect  use  of  the  mood 

Confusion  of  comparative  and  superlative 

Confusion  of  adjectives  and  adverbs 

Misplaced  modifiers 

Double  negatives •.■■•■. 

Confusion  of  preposition  and  conjunction 

Syntactical  redundance 

Wrong  part  of  speech  due  to  similarity  of  sound 

Confusion  of  prepositions 

Pronunciation  and  enunciation 

Adverb  instead  of  negative  form  of  verb 

Words  omitted 

Miscellaneous 


4 
2 
1 
2 
2 
0 
3 

14 
2 

24 
5 

12 
0 
1 
4 
0 

11 
0 

10 

1 


3 
1 
1 
3 
2 
1 
2 
9 
7 
8 
5 
20 
0 
1 


0 

21 

0 


3 
2 
1 
2 
2 
1 
2 

13 
3 

14 
5 

18 
0 
1 
2 
0 

10 
0 

16 
0 
2 
3 


Total  number  of  errors  . 


5,883 


11,207 


10,190 


25,676 


Detroit,  and  so  forth.  Any  type  of  error  given  0  percentage  appeared  with 
a  percentage  of  less  than  .5. 

"Randolph,  in  his  stenographic  report  of  the  speech  of  children,  given  in 
Part  I,  of  the  Sixteenth  Yearbook,  lists  1412  errors  in  sentence  structure  out 
of  a  total  of  2954  errors.  None  of  these  are  collected  from  teachers  in  the 
other  studies.  This  is  a  significant  difference,  and  although  incomplete 
answers  may  have  constituted  a  large  part  of  Randolph's  list,  other 
errors  not  belonging  to  this  class  were  present.  It  is,  therefore,  quite  cer- 
tain that  the  stenographic  report  is  superior  to  collection  of  errors  by 
teachers. 

"5.  The  grammatical  rules  and  definitions  included  in  the  course  of 
study  based  on  the  errors  of  Kansas  City  children  mav  be  summarized  as 
follows : 

A.  Nouns 

(a)  Definition 

(b)  Inflection    (1)   number   (2)   case    (possessive)    (3)   gender    (slight  use) 

(c)  Common  and  proper 

(d)  Syntax — (1)  subject  of  a  verb  (2)  subjective  complement  (3)  object 
of  verb  of  preposition  (4)  the  indirect  object.  (These  are  chiefly  of 
use    as   an   aid   in  the   understanding   of   pronouns.) 

B.  Pronouns 

(a)  Definition 

(b)  Personal  pronouns    (case   and  person,  gender,  number) 

(c)  Compound  personal  pronouns 

(d)  Relative  pronouns    (gender,  case) 


282  Department  of  Superintendence 


C.  Adjectives 

(a)  Definition  - 

(b)  Demonstrative  adjectives 

(c)  Cardinal  and  ordinal  adjectives 

(d)  The  derivation  of  proper  adjectives 

(e)  Comparison  of   adjectives 

D.  Verbs 

(a)  Definition 

(b)  Transitive  and  intransitive  verbs 

(c)  Person 

(d)  Number 

(e)  Tense   (particularly  present,  past,  and  past  perfect) 

(f)  Shall  and  will 

(g)  Can  and  may 

(h)  Mode    (very  slight) 

(i)  Voice 

(j)  Past  participles 

(k)  Infinitive   (very  slight)— split  infinitive 

E.  Adverbs 

(a)  Definition 

(b)  Comparison 

F.  Prepositions 

(a)  Definition 

(b)  Government  of  case 

G.  Conjunctions 

(a)  Definition 

(b)  Classification 
H.  Misplaced  modifiers 

I.  Double  negatives 
J.  Syntactical  redundance 

K.  Spelling — when  explainable  by  reference  to  grammar: — to,  a  preposition;  two, 
an  adjective ;  and  too,  an  adverb 

L.  Sentence  structure 

(a)  Definition 

(b)  How  to  write  it 

Begins  with  capital  letter 

Ends  with  a  period,  exclamation  mark,  or  interrogation  mark 

M.  Parsing  and  analysis 

(a)  Definition  of  both 

(b)  Division  of  sentence  into  parts 

(c)  In  general,  the  parsing  will  follow  the  elements  outlined  in  the  fore- 
going outline 

(d)  The  extent  to  which  the  parsing  will  be  carried  should  be  determined 
by  the  errors  of  the  children 

"Barnes,  in  general,  agrees  with  the  foregoing  items.  Differences  are  as 
follows:  He  adds  collective  nouns,  although  the  one  who  listens  to  a 
speaker  can  only  infrequently  tell  that  he  has  made  a  mistake  in  number. 
He  also  adds  appositives  in  nouns,  none  of  which  were  noted  in  the  Kansas 
City  study.  He  also  adds  the  plural  of  demonstrative  adjectives,  which 
was  an  oversight  in  the  Kansas  City  study.  He  adds  gerunds  but  omits 
negatives  and  syntactical  redundance,  which  are  possibly  not  strictly  gram- 
matical in  nature. 


The  Third  Yearbook  283 


"6.  An  examination  of  these  lists  shows  that  grammar  is  greatly  simplified 
as  to  both  the  complexity  of  the  sentences  used  and  the  narrow  range  of 
facts  to  be  learned.  Much  of  the  difficulty  of  grammar  is  eliminated.  Un- 
usual tenses,  gerundives,  infinitive  constructions,  and  most  of  the  mood 
forms  are  among  those  in  which  mistakes  are  infrequently  made  or  not 
made  at  all. 

"In  the  Kansas  City  study,  it  was  found  that  the  following  could  be 
omitted  from  the  course  of  study  which  was  in  operation  in  the  schools  at 
the  time  of  the  investigation :  the  exclamatory  sentence,  the  conjunction, 
the  appositive,  the  nominative  of  address,  the  nominative  by  exclamation, 
the  objective  complement,  the  adverbial  objective,  the  indefinite  pronoun, 
the  objective  used  as  a  substantive,  the  classification  of  adverbs,  the  noun 
clause,  the  conjunctive  adverb,  the  retained  objective,  the  moods  (except, 
possibly,  the  subjunctive  of  to  be),  the  infinitive  (except  the  split  infinitive), 
the  objective  subject,  the  participle  (except  the  definition  and  the  present 
and  past  forms),  the  nominative  absolute,  and  the  gerund. 

"It  is  evident  that  some  of  the  items  in  this  list  could  not  have  been  re- 
vealed by  this  method.  For  instance,  one  can  not  tell  from  reading 
whether  or  not  the  writer  should  have  used  an  exclamation  mark  to  convey 
the  meaning  he  intended.  Again,  the  material  read  did  not  include  in- 
stances of  the  nominative  of  address  where  the  comma  was  not  used  cor- 
rectly ;  in  fact,  the  use  of  the  nominative  of  address  was  very  slight.  The 
oral  sentences  reported  by  the  teachers  did  not  include  noun  clauses,  and 
the  children's  themes  which  were  read  seldom  used  the  complex  sentence, 
the  preference  seeming  to  be  for  the  compound  sentence. 

"It  is  quite  clear  that  a  much  more  simple  set  of  sentences  could  be  used 
for  analysis  and  parsing  than  are  presented  to  children  when  it  is  necessary 
for  them  to  learn  to  analyze  and  parse  sentences  involving  subtle  rules  in 
grammar  which  they  do  not  naturally  break. 

"7.  W.  J.  Richardson  and  Charters  (Pittsburgh)  classified  the  errors  by 
grades  to  see  what  natural  eliminations  occurred  during  progress  through  the 
grades.  Clearly,  no  absolute  standard  could  be  set  up,  because  certain 
errors  may  be  stressed  more  heavily  and,  therefore,  noticed  more  sharply  by 
teachers  in  the  upper  grades.  But,  if  a  type  of  error  has  completely  disap- 
peared, the  fact  is  of  some  significance.  None  such,  however,  were  noticed 
except  the  use  of  quite  childish  incorrect  forms  of  the  past  and  perfect 
tenses;  and  in  many  cases,  due  to  the  reason  just  mentioned,  some  errors 
increased  in  number  or  total  per  cent." 

Concerning  written  errors,  Johnson  gives  the  following  order  of  teach- 
ing emphasis  for  high  school  students: 

"(1)  Mistakes  in  capitalization.  (2)  Mistakes  in  the  use  of  the  apos- 
trophe. (3)  Mistakes  in  punctuation.  (4  )  Mistakes  in  the  use  of  adjec- 
tives and  adverbs.  (5)  Mistakes  in  spelling.  (6)  Mistakes  in  pronouns, 
not  including  case.  (7)  Careless  omissions  and  repetitions.  (8)  Mistakes 
in  the  use  of  verbs.  (9)  Mistakes  in  the  use  of  prepositions  and  conjunc- 
tions.    (10)    Sentence  meaning  not  clear.     (11)    Sentence  structure  not 


284  Department  of  Superintendence 

grammatical.     (12)    Mistakes  in  the  use  of  quotation  marks.     (13)    Mis- 
takes in  the  case  of  pronouns." 

3.  How  is  technical  grammar  derived? 

The  rules  broken  were  stated  negatively  as,  "failure  of  subject  to  agree 
with  predicate."  Then  the  rules  which  were  broken  were  stated  positively. 
When  this  had  been  done,  the  investigators  discovered  in  connection  with 
each  rule  the  definitions  necessary  to  understand  it.  The  rules  and  defini- 
tions thus  combined  indicate  the  technical  content  of  the  grammar  which  is 
necessary  to  give  comprehension  of  the  reasons  for  correct  grammatical 
speech.    The  results  of  this  method  of  derivation  are  given  above. 

4.  What  is  the  technical  content  of  letter  writing? 

Johnson's  investigation  is  reported  as  Study  No.  5.  It  deals  with  the 
letters  of  college  students  and  is  reported  because  of  its  direct  usefulness  in 
the  elementary  grades. 

5.  What  carrying  content  is  used  in  the  teaching  of  the  technique  of  lan- 
guage and  grammar? 

The  distinction  between  the  technique  of  language  and  grammar  and 
carrying  content  is  this :  The  carrying  content  is  the  material  that  is  used 
in  order  to  teach  the  facts  and  forms  of  language  and  grammar.  The  car- 
rying content  may  be  of  many  kinds :  games,  reproduction  stories,  drill  exer- 
cises, picture  studies,  and  the  like. 

Two  studies  are  reported :  ( 1 )  Paul  and  Charters  collected  a  large  num- 
ber of  language  games  used  in  the  classrooms  in  many  cities  in  the  United 
States.  These  have  been  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Education  as  Bulletin 
No.  43,  1923,  under  the  caption,  Games  and  other  Devices  for  Improving 
Pupils'  English  (price  10^).  (2)  C.  S.  Dike,  in  Education,  for  Septem- 
ber, 1924,  describes  the  method  by  which  he  has  constructed  92  sets  of  drill 
exercises,  one  set  for  each  of  the  errors  which  he  lists.  He  has  constructed 
his  own  exercises  and  uses  them  after  he  has  made  a  diagnosis  of  the  English 
difficulties  of  each  pupil.  This  method  is  significant  because  the  sets  of  ex- 
ercises can  be  made  and  used  by  the  teachers  of  any  school  system. 

6.  How  should  the  subject  material  of  language  and  grammar  be  gra- 
dated ? 

No  studies  of  gradation  have  been  reported.  However,  attempts  to  fit 
the  instruction  to  the  common  errors  of  the  class  or  to  the  outstanding 
errors  of  the  individual  have  been  made.  This  is  done  by  the  use  of  one  or 
more  of  the  diagnostic  tests  which  are  given  to  the  children  whose  individual 
errors  are  noted.  The  frequency  of  the  error,  its  persistence,  and  its 
seriousness  determine  the  emphasis  to  be  placed  upon  it. 

7.  What  differences  in  vocabulary  are  found  among  children? 
Vocabulary  studies  have  not  been  included  in  this  synopsis  because  of 

the  fact  that  vocabulary  has  been  construed  as  being  less  a  matter  of  lan- 
guage proper  than  of  history,  arithmetic,  and  the  other  subjects  in  connec- 


The  Third  Yearbook 


285 


tion  with  which  the  vocabulary  is  used.  Attention  should  be  called,  how- 
ever, to  two  interesting  vocabulary  studies  which  have  been  submitted. 
W.  J.  Osburn,  in  the  State  Department  of  Instruction  in  Wisconsin,  has 
examined  the  vocabularies  of  immigrant  children,  as  has  Miss  Nina  Joy 
Beglinger  and  her  assistants  in  the  Detroit  public  schools.  These  are  both 
in  mimeographed  form. 

STUDY  NO.  i.  Searson,  J.  W.  "Determining  a  language  pro- 
gram."    English  Journal,  February,  1924,  pp.  99-114. 

This  is  the  report  of  an  investigation  in  which  Mr.  Searson  attempts  to 
determine  what  language  skills  seem  necessary  for  men  in  various  occupa- 


TABLE  8o. 


-LANGUAGE  SKILLS  NECESSARY  FOR  ORDINARY  SUCCESS  IN 
LIFE  (7,752  PERSONS  FROM  42  STATES) 


Language   Skills   demanded 
by  public 

co 

a 
as 

J3 

0 

u 

CD 

s 

714 

boa 
a  g 

S  i 

%■£ 

u  a 
Hen 

406 

1 

CD 

O 
759 

U 
O 

B 
S 
fa 

2,187 

■0 
JK 

1     U 

CfiiJ 

397 

|e 

3  0 

a  nJ 
1,193 

CO 

u 
<u 
>> 

si 

si 

►J 

129 

01 
a 
.2 
'3 
co 

133 

CO 

u 

0) 
CO 

a 

N 

207 

CO 

M 
CD 

A 

IS 
V 

H 
1,136 

a 

cd 

CO   M 

0° 

<™ 

481 

"3 
0 
H 

7,752 

Speaking  Skills: 

Accurate  pronunciation. . .  . 

Good  conversation 

Clear  presentation 

Persuasive  skill — 

With  customers 

527 

193 

61 

702 

370 
392 
351 

402 

682 
691 
547 

709 

937 

1,020 

530 

861 

103 
216 
119 

19 

257 

313 

91 

14 

121 
107 
116 

120 
118 
109 

204 
200 
205 

1,102 

1,019 
1,114 

256 
313 
215 

3,677 
4,884 
3,458 

2,701 

109 

14 

123 

197 
14 
167 
131 
169 

197 

After  dinner  speaking 

Trade  and  civic  addresses. . .  . 

4 

12 

391 

613 

1 

92 

149 

38 

11 

14 

82 
103 

190 

79 

185 

1,797 

37 

28 

71 

212 

75 
12 

7 
188 

119 
90 
98 
89 

122 
72 
68 
51 

760 

131 

78 

1,136 

359 
194 
287 
347 

1,392 

891 

1,547 

3,743 

22,613 

Reading  Skills: 

312 
641 
403 
299 
32 
98 
701 
691 
522 

219 
384 
361 
97 
18 
377 
395 
389 
112 

307 
563 
283 
81 
16 
541 
231 
639 
119 

1,290 
1,993 

795 
1,431 

130 
1,863 
1,813 

759 

481 

197 

340 

251 

72 

29 

101 

179 

81 

113 

417 
818 
536 
79 
117 
488 
613 
114 
609 

129 

128 

126 

97 

102 

127 

124 

91 

72 

133 

127 

131 

109 

27 

116 

120 

12 

81 

205 

198 

195 

65 

15 

26 

185 

19 

48 

1 ,  130 

1,044 

961 

568 

93 

1,107 

1,119 

38 

123 

472 
479 
408 
103 
98 
411 
375 
312 
410 

4,811 

6,715 

4,450 

Technical  journals 

Plans  and  specifications 

3,001 

677 

5,255 

Letters,  orders,  contracts .... 

Description  of  goods 

Signs  and  advertisements .... 

5,845 
3,145 
2,690 

38,689 

Writing  Skills: 

631 

594 

603 
37 
49 

127 
299 

81 

365 

380 

396 
29 
11 

151 
96 
28 

509 
561 

413 
68 
21 

27 
58 
19 

1,213 
1,633 

817 
411 
112 

117 
103 
211 

309 
312 

72 

9 
12 

93 
6 
9 

512 
538 

71 
12 
4 

412 

18 

2 

118 
101 

128 
19 
53 

97 
4 
16 

126 
114 

96 
13 

41 

103 

9 

29 

192 
167 

193 

141 

13 

76 

15 
61 

1,131 

1,096 

1,101 

365 

15 

781 
16 
41 

465 
319 

178 
31 
93 

361 
372 
401 

5,771 

Good  penmanship 

Business     letters,     forms, 

5,815 
3,068 

1,135 
424 

Specifications    and    direc- 

2,345 

Clever  advertisements 

Clever  new  stories 

996 
898 

20,452 

General  Language  Skiils: 
Skill  to  gather,  organize,  in- 

376 
315 
219 

288 
216 
187 

18 
119 
121 

873 

1,079 

512 

79 

164 
92 

18 

213 

16 

123 

121 
82 

118 

126 

89 

176 
188 
156 

1,081 

1,059 

653 

465 
421 
189 

3,515 

Thinking  clearly,  cleverly.  . 

4,521 
2,316 

Total  of  General  Language 

11,352 

286  Department  of  Superintendence 

tions  who  desire  to  make  at  least  an  ordinary  success  of  their  work.  He 
seeks  to  determine  what  is  the  irreducible  minimum  of  language  skill 
needed  and  desired  by  men  and  women  in  different  vocations.  He  listed 
twenty-seven  language  skills  and  consulted  7752  persons  in  forty-two  states. 
The  method  used  in  obtaining  the  information  is  not  given.  The  gist  of  the 
report  is  presented  with  the  accompanying  table,  which  reads  as  follows : 

Of  the  714  merchants  questioned,  527  stated  that  they  needed  skill  in 
accurate  pronunciation,   etc. 

STUDY  NO.  2.  Pendleton,  Charles  S.  The  social  objectives  of  school 
English.  Published  by  the  author  at  George  Peabody  College  for  Teachers, 
Nashville,  Tenn.     pp.  3,  4,  36,  37,  38. 

The  investigation  reported  in  this  volume  is  a  contribution  toward  a 
definition  of  English  as  a  school  subject.  Scientific  in  method,  it  endeavors 
to  present  a  statement  of  the  precise  ultimate  social  objectives  which  are 
actually  set  up  as  goals  by  present-day  teachers  of  English. 

The  study  comprises  four  undertakings.  First,  it  brings  together,  from 
widely  diverse  sources,  a  particularized  catalog  of  those  objectives  which 
have  recently  been  stated  by  teachers  as  the  outcomes  which  ought  to  be 
attained  from  school  English.  This  list  of  objectives  almost  completely 
describes  present  practice  and  ideals. 

Secondly,  the  investigation  checks  and  supplements  this  catalog  derived 
from  teachers'  statements  of  their  aims.  To  this  end,  it  examines  specifi- 
cally the  English  used  by  many  adults  in  their  daily  life.  The  list  of  ob- 
jectives which  it  sets  forth  is  thus  verified  for  actual  social  validity  by  being 
compared  with  the  linguistic  abilities  of  mature  leaders  in  many  commu- 
nities. 

The  inquiry  undertakes,  thirdly,  to  arrange  the  items  in  its  catalog 
according  to  their  importance  as  judged  by  teachers.  It  therefore  obtains 
appraisals  from  eighty  instructors  in  English  and,  by  means  of  a  statistical 
combination  of  these  individual  ratings,  arranges  the  long  list  in  a  sequence. 

Fourthly,  in  support  of  this  evaluation  of  the  specific  objectives  of 
English,  it  studies  carefully  the  range  and  competence  of  the  eighty 
teachers  upon  whose  several  judgments  its  accepted  order  is  based. 

In  both  the  accumulating  and  the  appraising  of  the  goals  of  school 
English,  the  investigation  depends  upon  personal  judgments.  It  does  not 
set  up  an  impersonal,  objective  scheme,  for  ascertaining  the  facts. 

Method.  Several  sources  of  material  of  this  general  sort  were  drawn 
upon  to  make  up  this  catalog:  (1)  Direct  statements  from  272  teachers  of 
English,  contributed  personally  to  the  investigation;  (2)  similar  direct  ut- 
terances from  about  100  educators,  not  teachers  of  English  but  in  contact 
with,  the  problem;  (3)  all  the  articles,  editorials,  notes,  and  advertisements 
pertaining  to  English  which  were  published  in  eleven  important  educational 
periodicals  during  five  recent  years;  (4)  the  relevant  portions  of  67  stand- 
ard general  writings  on  education;  (5)  118  standard  volumes  about  English 
or  the  teaching  of   English;    (6)    49  state  or  city  courses  of  study,  or 


The  Third  Yearbook  287 


teachers'  manuals,  in  English;  and  (7)  62  widely  used  school  textbooks  on 
various  phases  and  educational  levels  of  this  subject. 

To  supplement  and  check  the  social  validity  of  the  catalog  thus  secured, 
the  actual  linguistic  usages  of  many  adults  were  also  studied.  The  group 
thus  investigated  consisted  of  2759  individuals  residing  in  99  widely  scat- 
tered communities.  All  were  educated  persons,  considered  to  be  leaders. 
The  many  linguistic  abilities  listed  during  this  inquiry  were  collated  with 
those  put  forward  by  teachers  as  school  objectives,  with  the  result  that  no 
important  omissions  in  the  teachers'  lists  were  discovered. 

In  all,  1581  objectives  were  listed.  These  were  then  evaluated  by  80 
teachers  enrolled  in  classes  in  the  teaching  of  English  in  the  University  of 
Chicago.  A  detailed  analysis  of  the  contribution  of  these  judges  is  given  by 
the  author.  The  1581  objectives  fell  into  six  categories:  (a)  language,  (b) 
conversation,  (c)  public  speaking,  (d)  oral  reading,  (e)  writing,  and  (f ) 
reading.  The  first  forty-eight  objectives,  "the  sine  qua  non  of  public 
school  English,  follow,  the  numbers  in  the  margin  indicating  the  ranking 
of  each  objective  within  the  respective  categories: 

1.  The  ability  to  spell  correctly  without  hesitation  all  the  ordinary  words 

of  one's  writing  vocabulary    E.    1 

2.  The  ability  to  speak,  in  conversation,  in  complete  sentences,  not  in  broken 
phrasing     B.    1 

3.  The  ability  to  write — in  ordinary  writing  situations  and  without  great 
concentration  of  attention — English  which  is  grammatically  correct.  ...      E.    2 

4.  The  attitude  of  prompt,  effective  abolishment  of  any  error  in  one's 
written  English  as  soon  as  it  is  first  called  to  one's  attention E.    3 

5.  The  ability  to  spell — without  great  concentration  of  attention — during 
one's  straightforward  writing,  all  the  common  words  of  English  written 
intercommunication.  (The  common  words  have  been  determined  scien- 
tifically by  a  number  of  recent  scholarly  investigations) E.    4 

6.  The  ability  to  use  intellectual  economy  in  expression — few  words,  not 
many;  a  thing  said  well  once,  not  poorly  and  then  supplemented  by 
restatement A.    1 

7.  The  ability  to  capitalize  speedily  and   accurately  in  one's  writing.  ...     E.    5 

8.  The  habit  of  reading  for  enjoyment  literature  of  the  better  sort F.    1 

9.  The  ability  to  think  quickly  in  an  emergency B.    2 

10.  The  ability,  in  conversational  situations,  to  speak  the  truth  tactfully  and 
efficiently    B.    3 

11.  An  attitude  of  genuine  desire  to  be  constructive,  not  destructive,  in  one's 
human  relations  B.    4 

12.  A  taste  for  reading  books   (not  merely  magazines)  of  an  excellent  sort     F.    2 

13.  The  attitude  of  maintaining  the  integrity  of  one's  spoken  word  as  one's 

bond — of  "keeping  one's  word" B.    5 

14.  An  attitude  of  alert  interest  in  the  world  and  all  things  in  it,  and  a 
desire  to  increase  one's  knowledge F.    3 

1 5.  Command  over  an  adequate  writing  vocabulary E.    6 

16.  The  habit  of  listening  attentively  and  thoughtfully  when  being  addressed     B.    6 

17.  The  ability  to  use  in  conversation  only  forms  of  expression  which  are 
grammatically  correct   B.    7 

18.  An  attitude  of  intelligent  consciousness  regarding  one's  use  of  language 

as  a  means  of  expression   A.    2 


288  Department  of  Superintendence 


19.  The  ability  automatically  to  speak  grammatically  correct  English  in  one's 
public  address C.    1 

20.  An  attitude  of  genuine  desire  to  accomplish  through  all  one's  abilities 
social  service,  not  mere  personal  aggrandizement   B.    8 

21.  The   ability  to  punctuate  accurately  and   speedily  while  writing E.    7 

22.  The  abilty  to  spell — without  great  concentration  of  attention — during 
one's  straightforward  writing,  all  the  words  of  one's  writing  vocabulary     E.    8 

23.  The  ability  to  write  effectively  simple,  straightforward  business  letters 

in  the  routine  of  daily  life  E.    9 

24.  The  ability  to  use  fluently  and  accurately  a  wide,  accurate,  and  ex- 
pressive speaking  vocabulary   . B.    9 

25.  A  perennial,  never-failing  interest  in  people;  the  habit  of  studying  them 
sympathetically F.    4 

26.  The  attitude  of  expecting  oneself  without  hesitation  or  doubt  to  write 

good  English E.  10 

27.  The  ability  to  refrain  from  marking  or  marring  in  any  way  a  borrowed 

book     .... F.    5 

28.  An  attitude  of  avoidance  of  all  affectation  and  lack  of  genuineness  in 
manner  of  speaking B.  10 

29.  Habitual  realization  that  good  physical  and  mental  health  is  funda- 
mental to  really  profitable  reading   F.    6 

30.  A  taste  for  reading  the  better  class  of  magazines,  not  the  inferior 
fiction  sort  F.    7 

31.  An  attitude  of  open-mindedness,  in  conversational  situations,  and  the 
ability  and  willingness  to  change  one's  mind  frankly B.  11 

32.  The  ability  to  rest  oneself  and  divert  one's  mind  from  business  or  social 
perplexities  through  the  enjoyable  reading  of  literature    F.    8 

33.  The  ability  to  determine  quickly  and  accurately  from  a  dictionary  the 
pronunciation  of   a  word    F.    9 

34.  The  habit  of  keeping  oneself  accurately  informed  upon  a  considerable 
number  of  topics  of  wide  interest  and  suitability  for  conversation  ......     B.  12 

35.  The  ability  to  think  rapidly  and  accurately  while  speaking  before  an 
audience    C.    2 

36.  An   attitude  of  democracy  rather  than   snobbishness  in   a  conversation     B.  13 

37.  The  habit  of  striving  to  excel  one's  own  best  records  of  attainment  in 
various  phases  of  mastery  of  vocabulary    A.    3 

38.  An  attitude  of  never  injuring  in  any  way  library  books  which  one  is 
consulting     F.  10 

39.  The  ability  to  write  one's  thoughts  fluently  in  acceptable  sentences....      E.  11 

40.  Command  of  so  ready  and  wide  a  vocabulary  that  one  is  not  forced 
into  grammatical  awkwardness  and  incorrectness  by  lack  of  the  right 
word  to  use  in  speech    B.  14 

41.  The  habit  of  attentiveness  and  of  dynamic  purpose  to  refer  to  a  diction- 
ary as  soon  as  possible,  whenever  one  meets  in  any  language  situation 

a  word  of  which  one  lacks  the  mastery   A.    4 

42.  A  genuine,  deep-seated  interest  in  the  world  of  books   F.  11 

43.  A  mastery  of  the  spirit  and  technique  of  good  fellowship — the  fine  art 

of  being  a  social  creature    B.  15 

44.  Habitual  substitution,  whenever  possible,  of  an  hour's  enjoyment  of  an 
ennobling  book  for  an  hour's  intercourse  with  a  degrading  person....     F.  12 

45.  Habitual  facility  in   recognizing  any  familiar  printed  word F.  13 

46.  The  ability  to  find  quickly  and  accurately  in  a  dictionary  the  meaning 

of  a  word  one  meets.  (This  involves  many  specific  abilities.)    F.  14 

47.  An  attitude  of  avoidance,  in  a  public  speech,  of  all  affectation  and  lack 

of  genuineness  in  manner  of  speaking , C.    3 


The  Third  Yearbook  289 


48.  The  ability  to  use  literature  as  a  window  through  which  to  look  out 
upon  human  experiences  as  a  lifelong  leisure  occupation  of  maximum 
f ruitf ulness    F.  1 5 

STUDY  NO.  3.  Bobbitt,  Franklin.  How  to  make  a  curriculum.  New 
York.    Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1924,  pp.  246-255. 

The  problem  was  to  determine  the  objectives  that  should  be  sought  for 
in  the  teaching  of  English  expression  in  the  high  school.  This  study  is 
included  because  it  presents  a  technique  which  can  be  applied  in  the  grades 
equally  as  well  as  in  the  high  school. 

Professor  Bobbitt  presented  the  English  teachers  of  the  high  schools  of 
Los  Angeles  with  his  well-known  list  of  objectives,  guiding  principles,  and 
assumptions,  and  pupil  activities  and  experiences.  These  are  listed  in  full 
in  How  to  Make  a  Curriculum.  The  English  teachers  were  then  to  draw 
up  lists  which  would  apply  to  English  expression  in  the  Los  Angeles  situa- 
tion.   The  statement  follows: 

'As  a  starting-point  only  for  the  curriculum-maker,  we  suggest  the  fol- 
lowing series  of  general  principles  and  assumptions  as  practical  guides  in  his 
work.  Let  him  modify  it  as  he  will,  or  draw  up  another.  But  he  should 
take  some  position  regarding  each  of  the  problems  here  suggested ;  and  hold 
to  it  consistently. 

Guiding  Principles  and  Assumptions 

1.  One's  expressed  language  is  the  objective  manifestation  of  one's  thought;  at 
the  same  time  the  language  is  the  subjective  instrument  of  one's  thought. 

2.  In  all  language  expression,  the  thought  is  the  primary  thing,  and  the  language 
the  vehicle;  caring  for  the  thought  adequately  involves  caring  for  the  vehicle 
adequately.  The  latter  is  done,  however,  not  for  the  sake  of  perfecting  the 
vehicle,  but  for  the  sake  of  perfecting  the  thought. 

3.  Every  school  department  that  is  developing  power  to  think  in  some  field 
should  develop  power  to  express  thought  clearly  and  sequentially  in  that  field. 
This  is  to  be  done  not  for  the  sake  of  the  expression  but  for  the  sake  of  adequate 
thought.  At  the  same  time  this  is  the  type  of  experience  which  normally  develops 
one's  powers  of  expression. 

4.  In  every  department  of  the  school  there  should  be  much  English  expression — 
for  the  sake  of  the  thought  or  content  side  of  the  department's  work.  The  ex- 
pression should  be  carefully  organized  and  adequate — for  the  sake  of  the  thought. 
There  should  be  as  much  oral  expression  by  each  individual  pupil  as  the  limited 
time  will  permit.  There  should  also  be  a  reasonable  amount  of  written  expression 
in  each  department. 

5.  The  distinction  which  the  student  himself  often  draws  between  expression  in 
his  English  classes  and  expression  in  the  classes  of  history,  science,  mathematics, 
etc.,  is  injurious  to  his  attitudes  and  powers  of  expression.  There  should  be  no 
possibility  of  such  distinction. 

6.  The  major  experience  in  developing  one's  powers  of  expression  is  normal 
participation  in  the  thought-life  and  language-life  of  school,  home,  and  general 
community,  under  circumstances  where  one  is  mainly  conscious  of  human  experi- 
ences and  of  things  objective,  and  relatively  unconscious  of  the  language-vehicle 
itself. 

7.  Language  activities  should  be  as  unconscious  and  automatic  as  possible. 

8.  One  should  be  made  conscious  of  only  those  aspects  of  his  language  of  which 
he  must  be  watchful  for  the  sake  of  exactness  and  correctness. 


290  Department  of  Superintendence 


9.  One  should  be  left  unconscious  of  those  aspects  of  language  which  one  uses 
properly  as  a  result  of  unconscious  learning. 

10.  A  diagnostic  study  of  the  language-abilities  of  each  individual  student  needs 
to  be  made.  Where  he  reveals  weakness,  he  is  to  be  trained ;  where  he  is  already 
sufficiently  strong,  he  is  not  to  be  trained. 

11.  Spelling  drill  for  each  individual  should  be  centered  upon  the  errors  which 
he  makes. 

12.  Handwriting  drill  for  each  individual  should  be  centered  upon  the  errors 
in  his  handwriting. 

13.  Pronunciation  drill  for  each  individual  should  be  mostly  centered  upon  the 
errors  in  his  pronunciation. 

14.  Grammatical  drill  for  each  individual  should  be  mostly  centered  upon  the 
grammatical  errors  which  are  to  be  eliminated.     . 

15.  In  discovering  the  language  errors  and  defects  of  individual  pupils,  the 
oral-speech  defects  of  pronunciation,  enunciation,  voice  quality  and  placement,  etc., 
are  to  be  looked  after  as  carefully  as  any  others. 

16.  In  each  aspect  of  his  expression,  the  student  should  keep  a  record  of  the 
types  of  error  against  which  he  should  be  on  guard.  His  major  task  is  to 
eliminate  these  errors. 

17.  Only  as  the  pupil  is  brought  to  be  watchful  of  himself,  without  prompting 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  is  his  training  accomplished. 

18.  Students  should  be  stimulated  to  attain  each  objective  as  expeditiously  as 
practicable,  and  with  a  minimum  of  teacher-labor.  The  more  it  is  done  without 
teacher-assistance,  through  pupil  self-direction,  as  proven  by  measured  results,  the 
greater  the  credit  that  should  be  given. 

19.  After  the  pupil  has  mastered  the  elements  of  formal  correctness,  all  depart- 
ments should  consider  it  their  function  to  see  that  he  permits  no  exception  to  occur 
in  his  use  of  the  correct  forms. 

20.  In  the  main,  matters  of  form  should  be  made  clear  only  as  the  difficulty 
arises.  So  far  as  no  difficulty  arises  in  the  undirected  language-life  of  the  individ- 
ual, he  may  better  remain  relatively  unconscious  of  the  technical  language  forms 
and  relationships. 

21.  Focusing  attention  upon  the  thought  is  a  mode  of  keeping  the  language  in 
the  background. 

22.  All  teaching  relative  to  matters  of  formal  correctness  will  be  done  by  the 
department  of  English.  Holding  pupils  responsible  for  correctness  of  expression 
will  be  a  responsibility  of  departments  where  expression  is  a  portion  of  pupil 
experience. 

23.  In  matters  of  formal  correctness,  the  major  effort  of  teachers  will  not  be 
teaching  but  rather  holding  pupils  responsible  for  self-direction  in  keeping  their 
expression  adequate  and  correct. 

24.  Only  those  facts  and  principles  relative  to  language  should  be  taught  which 
are  necessary  for  rendering  thought  and  communication  more  effective. 

25.  The  way  to  learn  to  express  one's  self  effectively  in  English  is  to  express 
one's  self  within  normal  situations  where  one  greatly  wants  to  express  one's  self 
well. 

26.  The  auditor  is  as  necessary  for  normal  expression  as  the  speaker;  the 
reader,  as  necessary  as  the  writer. 

27.  As  one  expresses  one's  self  orally,  one  must  feel  that  there  are  others  before 
him  who  are  accepting  his  communication  in  the  spirit  in  which  it  is  intended. 
If  they  are  merely  sitting  critical  of  his  expression,  the  whole  situation  is  deranging. 

28.  Written  expression  can  be  made  sufficiently  serviceable  for  training  purposes 
only  when  the  writer  is  conscious  that  his  production  is  to  be  read  by  or  to  others 
whom  he  desires  to  please,  convince,  instruct,  or  impress.  He  must  write  within 
a  normal  expression-situation.  These  cannot  be  manufactured ;  they  must  be  dis- 
covered.   Make-believe  will  not  serve  the  purpose.  , 


The  Third  Yearbook  291 


29.  When  one  is  expressing  himself  normally  in  writing,  he  must  be  filled  with 
the  consciousness  that  what  he  writes  is  to  be  read  by  some  one,  in  the  spirit 
intended  by  the  writer.  If  he  is  merely  conscious  that  it  is  to  be  examined  by  a 
critical-minded  teacher,  usually  the  situation  is  so  deranged  that  the  expression  is 
not,  and  cannot  be,  normal. 

30.  Deficiency  in  normal  expression  opportunities  under  school  control  is  one  of 
the  greatest  obstacles  to  effective  training  in  the  active  use  of  language. 

31.  The  English  department  has  not  control  over  a  sufficient  quantity  of  normal 
expression  situations  to  give  pupils  enough  practice  in  normal  written  expression. 

32.  The  student  who  does  not  realize  the  values  of  proficiency  in  expression, 
and  who  lacks  a  desire  to  attain  it,  is  not  prepared  to  profit  from  the  training. 
Mere  driving  him  will  be  of  little  avail.  Results  gained  are  but  apparent  and 
soon  lost  after  the  driving  season.  The  training  must  begin  with  laying  the 
proper  foundation  in  attitudes,  valuations,  and  desires.  Foundation  must  precede 
superstructure. 

33.  The  most  difficult  single  problem  is  how  to  bring  pupils  to  want  to  use  a 
good  quality  of  English. 

34.  In  the  language  itself,  the  two  major  things  to  be  cared  for  are  vocabulary 
and  sentence  structure. 

35.  Normally,  the  vocabulary  grows  up  almost  unconsciously  out  of  one's  diverse 
experiences  in  which  language  is  a  relatively  unconscious  accompaniment  and 
vehicle  of  thought.  The  training  problem  therefore  is  not  one  of  direct  teaching 
of  words,  but  rather  provision  of  diversified  normal  experiences  which  are 
accompanied  in  normal  ways  by  the  verbal  element. 

36.  Normally,  one's  sentence-sense  and  power  to  construct  complicated  sentences 
grow  up  for  the  most  part  unconsciously  out  of  one's  normal  thought  experiences. 
As  these  grow  complex,  the  sentences  keep  the  pace  in  complexity. 

37.  Paragraph  structures  will  develop  naturally  from  the  divisions  in  the  thought 
itself.  One  who  thinks  clearly,  adequately,  and  sequentially  will  break  his  thought 
into  its  natural  paragraph  divisions  with  little  attention  to  the  matter. 

38.  The  organization  of  the  larger  unit  of  discourse  is  at  bottom  but  an  organiza- 
tion of  the  thought-content. 

39.  Because  of  the  sensitiveness  of  one's  associates  to  matters  of  formal  correct- 
ness, errors  in  language-forms  of  every  kind  are  to  be  weeded  out  as  completely 
as  is  consistent  with  a  due  amount  of  training  effort.  The  standards  will  vary 
greatly  among  individuals  according  to  original  natures  and  to  their  social  sit- 
uation. 

40.  In  general  education,  literature  is  to  be  used  mainly  for  its  content  or 
experience  values.  It  is  not  to  be  used  as  a  basis  of  training  in  English  expression 
any  more  than  history  or  science. 

41.  There  is  no  more  reason  for  tying  the  English  expression  up  with  the 
literature  than  with  the  history  or  the  science. 

42.  Training  for  amateur  literary  production  is  to  be  given  only  to  those  of 
proved  capacity,  aptitude,  and  industry — and  who  require  no  great  amount  of 
teacher  effort  and  assistance. 

43.  The  general  training  in  English  expression  is  not  for  vocational  literary 
production,  nor  for  any  special  type  of  English  expression  in  any  vocation.  It  is 
only  for  the  ordinary  oral  and  written  expression  of  everyday  life. 

44.  Only  those  are  to  be  trained  for  vocational  literary  production  who  have 
definitely  chosen  this  as  their  work;  whom  studies  of  capacity  show  to  be  fitted 
for  it;  and  who  are  capable  of  a  large  degree  of  self-direction  in  achieving  the 
skills  and  understanding. 

45.  Special  vocations  require  special  forms  of  writing;  training  to  use  these, 
however,  should  be  a  portion  of  the  vocational  courses  and  given  only  to  those 
who  are  taking  these  courses. 


292  Department  of  Superintendence 


46.  The  basic  aspects  of  English  expression  are  the  same  whether  it  be  oral  or 
written.  This  being  the  case,  it  should  be  taken  care  of  as  one  thing;  but  a  thing 
of  many  aspects,   each  one  of  which  should   be   adequately  cared   for. 

Objectives  of  English  Expression 

1.  Ability  to  use  language  in  all  ways  required  for  proper  and  effective  par- 
ticipation in  the  community  life. 

2.  Ability  effectively  to  organize  and  present  orally  one's  thought  to  others : 
(a)  In  conversation;  (b)  In  recounting  one's  experiences;  (c)  In  more  serious  or 
formal  discussion;  (d)  In  oral  report;  (e)  In  giving  directions;  (f)  To  an 
audience. 

3.  Ability  to  pronounce  one's  words  properly. 

4.  Ability  in  speech  to  use  the  voice  in  ways  both  agreeable  and  effective. 

5.  Command  over  an  adequate  reading,  speaking,  and  writing  vocabulary. 

6.  Ability  to  use  language  which  is  grammatically  correct. 

7.  Ability  effectively  to  organize  and  express  one's  thought  in  written  form : 
(a)  Memoranda;  (b)  Letters;  (c)  Reports,  news  items  or  articles,  systematic  dis- 
cussion of  questions;    (d)    Giving  directions;    (e)   Written   addresses. 

8.  Ability  to  write  with  proper  legibility,  ease,   and  speed. 

9.  Ability  to  spell  the  words  of  one's  writing  vocabulary. 

10.  Ability  to  use  good  form,  order,  and  arrangement  in  all  of  one's  written 
work:  margins,  spacing,  alignment,  paragraphing,  -capitalization,  punctuation, 
syllabication,  abbreviations,  etc. 

214.  Ability  to  organize  and  express  one's  ideas  clearly  and  effectively  in  the 
discussion,  formal  or  informal,  of  social  problems. 

312.  Ability  to  converse  agreeably  and  effectively  upon  a  variety  of  topics  and 
in  a  mood  and  manner  suitable  to  the  situation. 

405.  Ability  to  utilize  conversation  as  a  profitable  and  enjoyable  means  of  par- 
ticipating in  the  thought  of  the  world. 

406.  Ability  and  disposition  to  give  expression  to  one's  thoughts  and  experiences 
in  proper  ways  and  under  proper  circumstances. 

502.    (25-a)   Ability  to  use  language  efficiently  as  the  vehicle  of  one's  thoughts. 

Pupil  Activities  and  Experiences 
"What  should  a  pupil  do  in  order  that  he  may  come  to  use  his  mother 
tongue  easily,  effectively,  and  correctly?  The  curriculum-maker  will 
probably  begin  by  formulating  the  statement  of  the  general  types  of  pupil 
activity  and  experience.  Some  of  the  things  that  he  will  include  are 
probably  the  following: 

1.  The  pupil  will  hear  much  English  of  the  type  which  he  is  expected  to  use. 

2.  He  will  read  much  English  of  the  type  which  he  is  expected  to  use. 

3.  He  will  associate  much  with  individuals  who  use  the  types  of  English  which 
he  is  expected  to  use. 

4.  He  will  have  experiences  under  conditions  which  impel  him  to  report  or  to 
discuss  those  experiences. 

5.  In  every  department  of  the  school  in  which  he  has  opportunities  for  oral 
or  written  expression,  he  will  utilize  these  opportunities  for  practice  in  expressing 
himself  as  clearly,  effectively,  and  adequately  as  practicable. 

6.  He  will  discover  the  kinds  of  language  errors  and  deficiencies  which  appear 
in  his  English. 

7.  He  will  keep  himself  on  guard  against  each  known  type  of  error  until  it  has 
been  eliminated  and  right  habits  formed. 

8.  He  will  master  the  technical  language  information  necessary  for  guidance  and 
judgment  in  eliminating  undesirable  language  forms.  • 


The  Third  Yearbook 


293 


9.  Employing  the  method  devised  by  the  school,  he  will  assist  his  associates  in 
the  discovery  of  their  language  errors  and  shortcomings. 

10.  He  will  utilize  the  assistance  of  his  associates  in  discovering  his  own 
language  errors  and  shortcomings. 

11.  He  will  express  himself  frequently  and  sometimes  at  length  under  cir- 
cumstances where  he  desires  to  express  himself  well. 

12.  He  will  acquire  ease  and  fluency  in  the  use  of  oral  and  written  English 
through  abundance  of  experience  in  using  the  oral  and  written  forms. 

13.  Before  expressing  himself  he  will  organize  the  elements  of  his  thought  so 
that  the  latter  may  be  in  proper  order,  sequence,  and  relation. 

14.  He  will  have  diversity  of  experiences  with  innumerable  things  under  cir- 
cumstances where  the  experiences  are  verbalized. 

15.  In  his  pronunciation,  spelling,  and  all  of  the  other  aspects  of  oral  and  written 
expression,  he  will  use  the  best  forms  of  which  he  has  knowledge. 

16.  He  will  permit  no  exception  to  right  language  forms,  so  far  as  possible. 

17.  He  will  frequently  revise  and  rewrite,  sometimes  several  times,  his  written 
productions. 

18.  He  will,  etc. 

"Before  this  list  is  ready  for  use,  it  should  be  indefinitely  extended ;  yet 
it  should  present  only  the  general  types  of  pupil  activity  and  experience  and 
not  enter  into  the  details.     It  is  to  be  an  instrument   for  guidance  in 

TABLE  8i.— FORM  ERRORS 
(Relative  Order  of  Frequency) 


Grades 


in 


IV 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Punctuation  at  end  of  sentence: 

1.  No  period 

2.  No  question  mark 

3.  Question  mark  for  period 

4.  Period  for  question  mark 

5.  Extra  period 

6.  Extra  comma 

Comma: 

7.  Series 

8.  Address 

9.  Comma  for  period 

10.  Period  for  comma 

11.  Comma  omitted  with  loss  of  clearness 

12.  Appositive  comma  omitted 

Quotation: 

13.  Quotation  marks  omitted 

14.  Wrong  quotation 

Singular-Plural : 

15.  Singular  for  plural  form 

16.  Plural  for  singular  form 

Capitalization: 

17.  No  initial  capital 

18.  Proper  name 

19.  Pronoun  I 

20.  Wrong  capitalization 

Possessive: 

21.  Wrong  possessive  form 

a.  No  apostrophe  and  $. 

b.  Plural  for  singular  possessive  and  vice  versa 

c.  No  apostrophe. 
Clauses: 

22.  and  clauses 

Sentences: 

23.  Incomplete  sentence 

Abbreviation: 

24.  Incorrect  form  of  abbreviation 

Hyphen: 

25.  Hyphen  omitted 


1 
6 

11 
12 
15 

23 

17 
13 
16 
21 
14 
22 

5 

25 

10 
20 

2 
7 

IS 
4 


24 
19 


1 
12 
19 
13 
11 
23 

15 
14 
17 
16 


21 

9 

20 

2 

7 

24 
4 


3 

10 

25 
20 


1 

11 
20 
15 
14 
23 

16 
12 
13 
17 
9 
21 

5 

22 

10 
19 

2 

•7 
25 

4 


24 
18 


1 

16 
24 
15 
13 
23 

12 
17 
9 
18 
11 
19 

7 

22 


2 
5 

25 
4 


3 

10 
20 
14 


1 

18 
24 
13 
17 
23 

11 

12 

8 

19 

14 
16 


10 
21 

2 

7 

25 

3 


2 
20 
22 
12 
21 
23 

11 
14 
5 
17 
15 
16 


10 
18 

1 

4 

25 

6 


20 

15 


19 
13 


294  Department  of  Superintendence 

formulating  the  details  of  the  curriculum.  With  a  completed  and  finished 
statement  in  the  hands  of  the  curriculum-making  group,  they  can  then 
reduce  the  activities  to  the  specifics  of  experience  for  first-grade  pupils, 
second-grade  pupils,  and  so  on  through  all  the  grades  to  the  end  of  second- 
ary education." 

STUDY  NO.  4.  Sunne,  Dagny.  "The  effect  of  locality  on  language 
errors,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  Volume  VIII,  pages  239-251, 
1923. 

The  problem  of  the  writer  is  to  parallel  in  Louisiana  the  studies  of 
language  errors  made  in  the  North  by  a  number  of  writers  and  to  discover 
the  variations  and  similarities  of  errors. 

The  written  work  of  4237  children  in  seven  parishes  of  Louisiana  was 
collected  for  one  week.  In  addition,  the  written  work  of  4381  students  in 
New  Orleans  schools  was  collected,  and  the  oral  errors  of  pupils  in  six 
parishes  were  observed  by  the  teachers  for  one  week. 

Table  81  gives  the  classification  of  written  errors.  The  frequency  rank- 
ings for  each  class  is  given  by  grades. 

The  conclusions  of  the  author  follow : 

"In  general,  this  survey  of  language  justifies  the  following  statements. 
(1)  The  larger  groups  of  syntactical  errors  hold  relatively  the  same  order 
in  different  localities,  verb  errors  taking  first  rank,  next  pronoun  errors, 
and  next  adjective-adverb  confusion  and  redundant  expressions.  (2) 
Language  errors  of  children  are  at  least  of  two  types,  (a)  those  peculiar 
to  the  community  and  (b)  those  generally  prevalent.  Hence  it  is  not 
practicable  to  limit  language  drill  to  a  definite  set  of  rules.  A  survey  of 
all  written  work  for  two  weeks  will  show  concretely  the  specific  abuses 
that  must  be  remedied.  (3)  There  are  indications  from  this  study  that 
syntactical  errors  may  be  more  readily  combated  than  form  errors.  The 
latter,  though  apparently  more  simple,  are  perhaps  to  a  greater  extent 
correlated  with  mental  ability  and  clear  thinking." 

STUDY  NO.  5.  Johnson,  Roy  Ivan.  "Letter-writing:  a  curriculum 
study  in  English  composition,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  Volume 
VI,  pages  423-437,  1922. 

This  is  a  study  of  the  standards  by  which  a  good  letter  may  be  judged 
and  an  analysis  of  defects  of  students'  letters  when  judged  by  these  standards. 

These  problems  are  solved  by  the  following  methods  to  determine  the 
standards  of  a  good  letter.  Approximately  one  hundred  and  fifty  letters 
were  contributed  by  women  of  recognized  leadership  throughout  the  coun- 
try— letters  taken  from  their  private  correspondence  files  and  submitted  as 
samples  of  "good  letters."  To  these  was  added  a  collection  of  literary 
letters  as  a  basis  for  an  analysis  of  student  errors  as  judged  by  these  stand- 
ards. About  1000  letters  from  young  women  of  approximately  Freshman 
standing  were  examined.  The  letters  of  women  were  studied  in  both  cases 
because  the  investigation  was  made  for  Stephens  College  which  is  a  junior 
college  for  women. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


295 


The  characteristics  of  these  letters  when  analyzed  by  the  investigator 
were  found  to  be :  courtesy,  informality,  humor,  opinions  about  events, 
optimism,  a  few  centers  of  organization,  and  good  form.  These  were  pre- 
sented in  at  least  fifty  per  cent  of  the  letters  examined. 

In  analyzing  the  student  letters,  250  social  letters  and  750  business  letters 
were  studied.  The  social  letters  were  written  by  young  women  of  college 
Freshman  standing ;  the  business  letters  were  written  by  high  school  seniors 
who  were  considering  entering  college.  The  category  of  errors  is  similar 
to  that  used  in  another  study  reported  by  Mr.  Johnson  (Table  82),  which 
ran  as  follows: 

TABLE  82.— THE  RELATIVE  PREVALENCE  OF  ERROR  IN  250  SOCIAL  LET- 
TERS WITH  A  TOTAL  OF  90,530  WORDS 

(106  Unclassified  Errors  Not  Included  in  this  Table.) 


Error-types 


Number  of 
enors 


Rank 


I.  Punctuation 

II.  Sentence  Structure 

III.  Spelling 

IV.  Adjectives  and  Adverbs 

V.  Letter  Form 

VI.  Capitalization 

VII.  Diction 

VIII.  Apostrophe 

IX.  Careless  Writing 

X.  Verbs 

XI.  Prepositions  and  Conjunctions 

XII.  Case 

XIII.  Pronouns  (not  case) 

XIV.  Quotation  Marks 

Total 


899 

517 

308 

269 

223 

131 

97 

88 

61 

59 

47 

25 

22 


9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 


2,745 


TABLE  83.— THE  RELATIVE  PREVALENCE  OF  ERROR  IN  750  BUSINESS 
LETTERS  WITH  A  TOTAL  OF  60,610  WORDS 


Error-types 


Rank 


Punctuation 

Letter  Form 

Capitalization 

Sentence  Structure 

Spelling 

Verbs 

Apostrophe 

Diction 

Careless  Writing 

Prepositions  and  Conjunctions 

Adjectives  and  Adverbs 

Quotation  Marks 

Pronouns   (not  case) 

Case 

Total 


A  study  was  also  made  of  the  content  of  the  letter  according  to  the  other 
six  standards  of  good  letters.  These  findings  could  not  be  tabulated.  They 
were  expressed  in  the  following  terms : 

"When  the  social  letters  were  examined  from  the  standpoint  of  content 
and  general  style  instead  of  from  the  standpoint  of  mechanical  correctness, 
five  obvious  weaknesses  appeared.    The  characteristics  of  excellence  estab- 


296  Department  of  Superintendence 

lished  by  a  study  of  the  letters  submitted  by  prominent  women  (Group  I) 
and  of  literary  letters  (Group  II)  have  been  used  as  a  standard  of  judg- 
ment. It  was  not  possible,  however,  to  draw  reliable  conclusions  in  regard 
to  courtesy  in  student  letters.  While  there  were  few  noticeable  instances 
of  discourtesy  recognizable,  the  majority  of  the  letters  seemed  to  lack  that 
thoughtfulness  and  consideration  for  the  reader  which  was  so  obvious  in 
the  letters  of  Group  I.  A  too  frequent  focusing  on  self  (quite  natural  and 
excusable  in  youth)  seemed  to  exclude  completely  a  consciousness  of  the 
interests  of  the  'other  person,'  with  only  a  peripheral  margin  of  attention 
at  best. 

"Of  optimism  there  was  no  lack.  The  objection,  if  any,  would  be  the 
seeming  perversion  of  a  healthful  cheerfulness  into  an  unballasted  hilarity — ■ 
a  superlative  gush — innocent  of  all  adequate  considerations  of  fact  and  cir- 
cumstance. 

"Crudeness  in  letter-writing  is  the  miscarriage  of  informality.  The  use 
of  a  slangy  phrase  that  offends  the  sense  of  propriety,  the  continuous  use  of 
beheaded  sentences,  the  excessive  use  of  nicknames  and  familiar  epithets, 
the  hilarious  and  unrestrained  treatment  of  personal  experience,  and  over- 
indulgence in  the  'emotional  superlative'  may  spring  from  a  mis-directed 
attempt  to  achieve  informality  in  letter-writing — and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  informality  is  the  result — but  it  is  an  informality  not  pleasing  to  a  dis- 
criminating mind.  This  is  the  first  notable  weakness  of  student  letters. 
Evidently  the  cure  lies  in  the  development  of  good  taste,  a  sense  of  fitness, 
and  in  the  careful  study  and  application  of  the  common  devices  of  infor- 
mality used  by  good  letter-writers. 

"Inferior  humor  was  evident  in  most  of  the  student  letters  in  which 
humor  was  attempted.  The  two  most  prevalent  humor  devices  employed 
were  (1)  interpolated  laughter,  and  (2)  the  comedy  of  'tragic'  occurrences 
such  as  the  failure  of  recipes  or  of  attempts  to  foil  the  teacher.  Many  of 
these  instances  contained  humor  possibilities  which  were  ruined  in  the  tell- 
ing. Interpolated  laughter  is,  of  course,  inane  and  intolerable.  A  few  rare 
instances  of  it  can  be  found  in  literary  letters  which  are  otherwise  un- 
objectionable. The  improvement  of  the  quality  of  humor  employed  in 
student  composition  can  be  accomplished  through  more  definite  attention  to 
the  subject  of  humor.  A  sense  of  humor  needs  educational  direction  as 
much  as  the  capacity  for  musical  appreciation. 

"Few  opinions,  other  than  exclamatory  outbursts  indicating  approval 
or  disapproval,  were  found  in  the  student  letters.  Actual  count  showed 
fewer  than  ten  per  cent  of  them  to  be  opinionative.  They  were  primarily 
'newsy,'  a  complete  gossip  repertory,  a  catalog  of  'she-did's'  and  'we-went's.' 

"Lack  of  organization  about  central  themes  was  another  prominent  weak- 
ness of  the  student  letters.  Instead  of  few  centers  of  organization,  there 
were  many.  The  tendency  to  'tell-everything'  is  probably  a  natural  juve- 
nile trait,  since  everything  in  one's  experience  is  invested  with  a  certain 
interest;  but  it  is  contrary  to  the  best  practice  as  found  in  the  letters  of 
Groups  I  and  II.  The  value  of  dominant  themes  in  letters  should  be 
stressed." 


CHAPTER   IX 

ELEMENTARY  SCIENCE 

Elliot  R.  Downing,  Associate  Professor  of  Natural  Science,  School  of  Education, 
University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  Illinois,  Chairman 

Major  Problems  in  the  Formation  of  the  Curriculum  in  Elementary  Science 

What  attainments  and  mental  attitudes  in  nature  study  should  be  ex- 
pected of  a  third-grade  pupil  ?    A  sixth-grade  pupil  ? 

What  fundamental  principles  of  life  and  interrelation  of  plants  and 
animals  and  their  physical  environment  should  be  common  knowledge  for 
everyone  ? 

Can  methods  be  devised  for  determining  relative  social  values  of  topics 
which  might  be  included  in  a  course  in  nature  study? 

What  part  of  this  knowledge  should  be  acquired  before  the  pupil  enters 
senior  high  school  or  leaves  school  entirely? 

What  is  the  order  of  development  of  a  child's  ability  to  profit  by  vary- 
ing sense  stimuli  ?  Can  we  hope  to  teach  children  to  recognize  animals  or 
plants  in  detail?  Or  is  the  recognition  merely  that  of  the  whole?  If  the 
latter,  what  are  the  most  important  elements  in  the  whole?  To  illustrate, 
in  teaching  children  to  recognize  birds,  should  attention  be  directed  pri- 
marily to  color  or  to  form? 

To  what  extent  can  we  hope  to  cultivate  the  habit  of  scientific  thinking — 
that  is,  the  habit  of  observing  carefully  and  accurately,  drawing  warranted 
conclusions  or  generalizations,  and  abiding  by  the  results  of  testing  these 
conclusions  ? 

How  far  can  a  curriculum  provide  for  acquiring  such  knowledge  and 
such  habits? 

How  can  the  curriculum  be  adjusted  to  the  growth  of  the  child?  At 
what  age  level  does  the  child  acquire  accuracy  and  a  sense  of  form,  color, 
and  relationships,  and  the  ability  to  analyze  and  discriminate?  How  do 
his  interests  change  from  age  to  age?  Can  the  curriculum  be  adjusted  to 
such  changes? 

What  are  the  errors  the  child  is  most  likely  to  make  in  scientific  think- 
ing?   Can  the  curriculum  be  so  formulated  so  as  to  avoid  these? 

Can  we  depend  upon  the  native  curiosity  of  the  child  to  uncover  worth- 
while problems  and  projects?  In  how  far  must  the  teacher  hold  his  atten- 
tion to  the  problem  at  hand  and  how  far  must  she  supervise  the  child's 
selection  of  pertinent  elements?  How  does  this  change  with  advancing 
age? 

Can  we  so  guide  and  direct  that  all  we  wish  the  pupil  to  acquire  shall 
come  through  projects  worked  out  by  him? 

How  early  does  the  child  acquire  esthetic  appreciation  of  form,  balance, 
symmetry  of  relations  ?  What  elements  can  be  introduced  into  the  curricu- 
lum to  develop  these  and  other  esthetic  phases? 

How  much  appeal  should  be  made  to  the  emotional  side  directly?  In- 
directly ? 

[297] 


298  Department  of  Superintendence 

How  prominent  should  be  the  economic  or  useful  phases? 

At  what  stages  should  the  various  phases,  economic,  esthetic,  etc.,  be 
emphasized  ? 

What  should  be  the  relation  of  nature  study  and  general  science  to  read- 
ing, literature,  drawing,  art,  etc.,  and  how  should  these  relationships  be 
recognized  in  the  curriculum? 

What  is  the  proper  grade  placement  of  pictures  and  of  poems  illustrative 
of  nature?  What  are  the  relative  merits  of  pictures,  lantern  slides,  and 
motion  pictures,  and  is  there  a  change  in  this  at  various  grade  levels? 

Review  of  Research  Studies  in  Elementary  Science 

STUDY  NO.  i.  Mau,  Laura  E.  "Some  experiments  regarding  the 
relative  interests  of  children  in  physical  and  biological  materials  in  the 
kindergarten  and  primary  grades."  The  Nature  Study  Review,  Volume 
VIII,  No.  8.    November,  1912. 

Object.  To  determine  whether  children  are  most  interested  in  animal, 
plant,  or  physical  materials  in  nature  study  and  in  what  phases  of  these 
materials  they  are  most  interested. 

Method.  In  the  kindergartens,  first,  second,  and  third  grades  of  eight 
schools  in  and  about  Chicago,  Illinois,  two  tests  were  conducted,  the  second 
like  the  first  but  with  different  materials.  The  results  are  based  on  the 
returns  from  some  two  thousand  children  in  each  test. 

The  materials  used  in  the  first  test  were:  a  cat,  a  pepper  plant,  and  a 
toy  engine;  for  the  second  test,  ring  doves,  sensitive  plants,  and  magnets 
and  filings  were  used. 

The  objects  were  taken  into  the  room  and  placed  on  teacher's  desk. 
The  children  were  asked:  "If  you  could  have  one  of  these  for  your  very 
own,  which  would  you  choose  ?"  Replies  were  whispered  to  Miss  Mau  or 
her  assistants  and  recorded.  In  the  second  test,  children  fed  and  gave  a 
drink  to  the  hungry,  thirsty  doves;  each  child  touched  the  leaf  of  the 
sensitive  plants  and  saw  the  leaflets  fold  together,  the  whole  leaf  drop  to 
its  sleep  position ;  and  two  children  held  the  magnets  near  the  filings  and 
all  saw  the  filings  jump  up  to  the  magnets. 

Miss  Mau  then  said  she  could  not  stay  that  day  to  answer  questions  but 
she  would  come  back  in  ten  days  and  answer  such  as  they  might  like  to 
ask.  On  her  return,  questions  were  whispered  to  her  or  her  assistants  and 
recorded.  She  then  hastily  grouped  them  and  gave  a  talk  to  answer  them. 
It  was  hoped  that  the  less  interesting  materials  would  fade  out  of  the  child's 
mind,  the  more  interesting  would  remain,  and  the  number  and  kinds  of 
questions  would  disclose  the  answer  to  the  problems  investigated. 

Findings.  In  test  one,  the  children's  preferences  were:  first,  the  toy 
engine;  second,  the  cat;  and  third,  the  pepper  plant.  It  was  feared  the 
results  were  hardly  fair,  for  the  choice  lay  between  a  toy  and  non-toys. 
Hence,  the  experiment  was  repeated  with  materials  that  were  equally 
active. 


The  Third  Yearbook  299 

In  test  two,  the  expressed  preferences  were :  first,  the  ring  doves ;  second, 
the  sensitive  plants;  and  third,  the  magnets  and  iron  filings.  The  per  cent 
of  all  questions  asked  for  the  animal  was  46 ;  plant,  30 ;  and  physical  mate- 
rial, 24.  The  questions  dealt  almost  exclusively  with  identification  and  the 
activities  of  the  objects.  Identification :  Dove,  40.3  per  cent;  plant,  36.8  per 
cent;  magnet,  34.2  per  cent.  Activities:  Dove,  41  per  cent;  plant,  47.3 
per  cent ;  magnet,  49.9  per  cent. 

Questions  implying  activity  on  the  part  of  the  child  exceeded  all  other 
activity  questions  in  the  kindergarten  and  declined  to  grade  three.  Ques- 
tions about  the  activity  of  the  object  were  least  in  the  kindergarten  and 
increased  to  grade  three  where  they  exceeded  the  former  sort. 

Questions  implying  motor  activity  on  the  part  of  the  child  exceeded  those 
implying  sensory  activity  in  the  kindergarten  and  grade  one:  the  two  sorts 
were  about  equal  in  grade  two,  but  the  latter  exceeded  the  former  in  grade 
three. 

STUDY  NO.  2.  Downing,  Elliot  Rowland.  "Children's  interests  in 
nature  materials,"  The  Nature  Study  Review,  Volume  VIII,  No.  9.  De- 
cember. 

Object.  To  determine  whether  children  are  most  interested  in  animal, 
plant,  or  physical  materials  in  nature  study,  and  in  what  phases  of  these 
materials  they  are  most  interested. 

Method.  A  study  was  made  of  the  questions  and  observations  by  boys 
and  girls  published  in  the  Science  Department  of  St.  Nicholas  Magazine 
under,  "We  Will  Ask  St.  Nicholas  About  It."  Questions  were  classified, 
and  interests  indicated  by  the  number  and  character  of  the  questions. 

Findings.  Of  the  742  questions  and  observations,  61  per  cent  were  on 
animals;  20.6  per  cent  on  plants;  and  11.6  per  cent  on  physical  materials. 
Boys  asked  a  larger  per  cent  of  questions  about  animals  and  plants ;  and 
girls,  about  physical  materials.  The  average  age  was  11.9  years  for  boys, 
and  12.08,  for  girls.  The  most  absorbing  items  under  each  head  were: 
( 1 )  Animal  life,  of  these  questions  24.95  per  cent  concerned  insects ;  24.27 
per  cent,  birds;  and  18.54  per  cent,  common  mammals.  (2)  Plants,  of  these 
questions  36.60  per  cent  concerned  wild  flowering  plants;  8.5  per  cent, 
garden  flowering  plants;  23.53  per  cent,  trees;  and  14.38  per  cent,  fruits 
and  vegetables.  (3)  Of  the  total  questions  24.39  per  cent  concerned 
physical  material ;  of  this  material,  42.28  per  cent  related  to  elementary 
physics,  and  16.26  per  cent  astronomical  topics. 

Questions  on  activities  and  identifications  were  the  dominant  sort;  there 
was  62  per  cent  on  the  former,  20  per  cent  on  the  latter. 

STUDY  NO.  3.  Trafton,  Gilbert  H.  "Children's  interests  in  nature 
materials."  The  Nature  Study  Review,  Volume  IX,  No.  6.  September, 
1913. 

Object.  To  test  the  child's  knowledge  of  plants  and  animals,  and  to  see 
Nature  from  the  child's  standpoint. 


300  Department  of  Superintendence 

___ — ___ — _ __ , — r 

Method.  Nearly  a  thousand  children  of  Passaic,  New  Jersey,  were 
asked  the  following  questions:  First,  make  a  list  of  all  birds,  insects,  and 
other  animals  that  you  have  seen  in  Passaic,  except  in  a  menagerie.  Describe 
briefly  the  most  noticeable  feature  about  each  of  the  animals,  and  tell  which 
you  like  best,  and  why?  Which  ones  do  you  dislike  and  why?  What 
interests  you  most  about  a  plant?  Make  a  list  of  the  trees  that  you  know, 
and  of  the  flowers.  Which  flower  do  you  like  best?  What  animal,  after 
man,  knows  most  ?    Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

Findings.  The  acquaintance  of  children  with  wild  plants  and  animals 
is  very  limited.  Color  was  the  feature  which  they  noticed  most;  next, 
sounds;  and  next,  size.  The  activities  of  animals  appeal  more  strongly 
in  upper  grades  than  do  appearances.  Favored  animals  in  order  of  prefer- 
ence: (1)  Dog,  (2)  horse,  (3)  cat,  (4)  wild  birds,  and  (5)  rabbit.  Sixty 
per  cent  of  the  boys  expressed  no  dislike  for  animals.  The  animals  disliked 
in  order  are:  (1)  Mice  and  rats,  (2)  snakes,  (3)  cats,  (4)  dogs,  (5) 
mosquitoes,  and  (6)  pigs. 

STUDY  NO.  4.  Patterson,  Alice  J.  "The  present  status  of  nature 
study:"  An  analysis  of  Courses  of  Study.  Nature  Study  Review,  Volume 
IX,  No.  8.    November,  1913. 

Thompson,  Clem  O.  Science  materials  used  in  instruction  in  the  first 
six  grades.     Masters  Thesis.     Univ.  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

Object.  To  analyze  courses  of  study  in  elementary  science  to  see  what 
subjects  are  most  commonly  treated  and  in  what  grades. 

Method.  Analysis  of  thirty-two  state  courses  of  study;  nineteen  from 
large  cities,  and  thirty  training  school  courses  from  small  cities. 

Findings.  In  the  eighty-one  courses  of  study,  there  were  4812  items  of 
animal  study,  4588  of  plant,  and  1548  on  physical  materials,  exclusive  of 
geography.  The  most  frequently  recurring  group  of  animal  studies  were 
insects,  birds,  and  the  common  mammals;  of  plants,  wild  flowers,  trees, 
and  garden  plants;  of  physical  topics,  fuels,  the  warming  of  our  homes, 
thermometers,  evaporation,  condensation,  air  movements,  air  machines, 
and  magnetism. 

STUDY  NO.  5.  Ayer,  Fred  C.  The  psychology  of  drawing  with  spe- 
cial reference  to  laboratory  teaching.     Warwick  and  York,  Baltimore. 

Bryson,  Olive  Flora.  The  extent  to  which  diagrammatic  drawings  con- 
tribute to  an  understanding  of  scientific  facts. 

Object.  To  discover  whether  a  diagrammatic  drawing  fixes  in  mind  the 
facts  to  be  taught  better  than  the  customary  sketch.    - 

Method.  To  experimentally  try  out  various  types  of  drawing  with 
several  classes  of  pupils  in  the  high  school  science  classes  to  see  which  type 
fixed  facts  in  mind  best  regarding  the  set  up  of  apparatus,  structure  of 
plants  and  animals,  and  the  like. 

Findings.  The  diagrammatic  drawing  is  more  economical  of  time  than 
is  the  picture-sketch,  and  also,  even  with  less  time  put  upOn  it,  is  superior 
in  fixing  in  the  pupils'  minds  the  facts  to  be  retained. 


The  Third  Yearbook  301 

STUDY  NO.  6.  Finley,  Charles  W.  "Some  studies  of  children's  in- 
terests in  science  materials."  School  Science  and  Mathematics.  Volume 
21,  January,  1921,  pp.  1-24. 

Object.  To  secure  data  on  children's  interests  in  plant  and  animal  life 
and  physical  phenomena. 

Method.  In  grades  one  to  eight  in  thirteen  different  school  systems,  a 
"water  dog"  or  "mud  puppy"  in  a  glass  aquarium  was  taken  into  the  class- 
room. After  viewing  the  animal  for  a  definite  period  and  without  discus- 
sion, the  pupils  in  grades  three  to  eight  returned  to  their  seats  and  in  writ- 
ing asked  all  the  questions  they  desired  to  have  answered  about  the  animal. 
In  the  first  and  second  grades,  the  pupils  whispered  their  questions,  and  the 
teachers  recorded  them.    This  experiment  involved  1718  pupils. 

A  second  experiment  was  tried  in  five  school  systems,  grades  three  to 
eight,  and  involved  827  pupils.  A  thirty-minute  lesson  was  divided  equally 
in  a  presentation  of  a  topic  in  animal  life,  one  in  plant  life,  and  one  in  ele- 
mentary physics.  For  the  first,  a  bird  was  used ;  for  the  second,  a  potted 
plant ;  and  for  the  third,  a  pendulum.  On  the  second  day,  following  the 
experiment,  the  pupils  were  asked  to  write  an  essay  concerning  one  of  the 
things  presented.  The  topics  chosen  were  considered  as  indicative  of  in- 
terest. In  the  second  experiment,  animal  life  received  most  attention  in 
all  grades;  plant  life,  second;  and  the  pendulum,  third. 

Findings.  8328  questions  were  asked  about  the  animal.  These  were 
accepted  as  showing  types  of  interests,  and  were  classified  under  twenty 
headings,  such  as,  identification,  life,  history,  adaptation,  etc. 

STUDY  NO.  7.  Finley,  Charles  W.,  and  Caldwell,  Otis  W.  Biology 
in  the  public  press.  Bulletin  of  the  Lincoln  School,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University. 

Object.  To  determine  what  biological  knowledge  is  referred  to  in 
newspapers. 

Method.  The  complete  issues  of  eleven  prominent  newspapers  for  the 
month  of  June,  1921,  and  six  for  the  month  of  November,  1921,  were  care- 
fully reviewed.  A  total  of  13,796  newspaper  pages  afforded  3061  articles 
pertaining  to  biology. 

Findings.  Out  of  the  total  3061  articles  pertaining  to  biology  found  in 
newspapers,  897  dealt  with  health ;  775  with  animals ;  660  with  plants ; 
533  with  food;  81  with  organizations  of  producers;  74  with  general  na- 
ture; 47  with  evolution;  and  14  were  fictitious. 

"The  conclusion  can  not  be  drawn  that,  since  these  biological  articles 
have  been  found  and  since  they  are  clearly  grouped  into  certain  definite 
headings,  therefore  these  are  necessarily  the  topics  toward  which  all  high 
school  instruction  in  biology  should  be  directed.  It  may  be  that  there  are 
types  of  available  biological  information  which  should  be  presented  which 
are  omitted  in  the  newspaper  articles.  Possibly,  also,  some  needful  biologi- 
cal information  is  as  yet  unknown  to  biologists,  or  if  known  has  not  been 
made  available  to  the  public  press.  Possibly  the  press  would  publish,  and 
the  public  would  like  to  read,  much  more  biological  material  of  much  wider 


302  Department  of  Superintendence 

range,  if  it  were  made  available.  These  are  questions  which  the  present 
study  does  not  determine,  but  which  should  receive  later  attention. 

"It  seems  safe  to  conclude  further  that  since  these  types  of  biological 
knowledge  are  going  to  the  public  in  such  large  quantities  all  over  the  whole 
country,  the  course  in  school  biology  should  consider  them  as  part  of  the 
legitimate  foundation  upon  which  to  proceed  in  constructing  a  course  of 
study.  Other  evidences  when  developed  should  also  be  used  in  whatever 
ways  those  new  evidences  may  justify." 

Otis  W.  Caldwell  and  W.  H.  Meier  have  been  experimenting  in  the 
organization  of  a  course  of  study  materials  for  use  in  elementary  science 
with  fifth  and  sixth  grade  pupils.  One  principle  of  guidance  has  been  to 
select  those  major  science  topics  which  are  simple  enough  to  be  interpreted 
fairly  well  by  young  pupils.  The  problems  selected  are  those  relating  to 
the  use  of  science  in  common  experiences.  Their  selection  is  not  primarily 
because  of  usefulness  but  being  useful  and  thereby  desirable,  they  also  add 
a  meaning  which  stimulates  work  and  thought.  The  course  materials  thus 
selected  have  been  tried  and  corrected  through  use  with  considerable  num- 
ber of  pupils  in  different  types  of  schools  and  in  the  hands  of  different 
teachers.  The  topic  headings  under  which  this  body  of  course  of  study  ma- 
terial is  now  organized  are :  Some  common  problems  of  living ;  fire  and  its 
uses;  light  and  its  uses;  fire  control;  the  water  supply;  household  wastes; 
fire  in  the  preparation  of  foods;  factors  in  food  requirements;  production, 
use  and  care  of  milk;  animals  which  injure  foods;  regulation  of  the  food 
industry ;  sources  and  qualities  of  materials  for  clothing ;  home  grounds  and 
garden ;  home  equipment ;  hygiene  of  the  home ;  transportation ;  communica- 
tion and  recreational  science. 


CHAPTER  X 

HEALTH  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Thomas  D.  Wood,  Professor  of  Physical  Education,  Teachers  College 
Columbia  University,  Neiv  York  City,  Chairman 

SECTION  I.  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH  IN  THE  FIELDS  OF 
HEALTH  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

In  gathering  the  data  for  this  report,  about  150  letters  of  inquiry  were 
sent  to  a  list  which  included  (1)  all  state  superintendents  of  public  in- 
struction, (2)  about  forty  city  school  systems  known  to  be  actively  inter- 
ested in  health  and  physical  education,  (3)  schools  of  education  in  certain 
universities  and  colleges,  (4)  a  miscellaneous  list  of  organizations  and  per- 
sons. The  selection  was  made  in  groups  (2),  (3)  and  (4)  from  the  records 
of  the  American  Child  Health  Association  and  Joint  Committee  on 
Health  Problems  of  the  National  Education  Association  and  the  American 
Medical  Association  which  indicate  with  reasonable  comprehensiveness 
those  localities  where  intensive  work  is  being  done  in  health  and  physical 
education. 

In  addition,  the  Readers'  Guide,  International  Book  Review,  and  similar 
bibliographies  were  searched  for  printed  reports  of  research. 

The  subcommittee  wishes  to  acknowledge  its  indebtedness  to  the  many 
persons  who  have  willingly  cooperated  in  the  collection  of  the  materials  of 
this  report.  Some  of  the  valuable  data  submitted  to  the  committee  could 
not  be  included  in  this  report  due  to  the  necessary  limitation  of  the  scope  of 
the  report  to  research  in  curriculum  construction.  The  committee  neverthe- 
less gratefully  extends  its  thanks  to  all  who  participated  in  this  cooperative 
undertaking. 

A.  Research  in  Health  Education 

The  questions  which  confront  the  makers  of  curricula  in  the  field  of 
health  education  can  not  in  any  instance  be  completely  and  fully  answered 
by  available  research.  Nevertheless,  it  is  important  to  indicate  what  some 
of  the  most  important  questions  are,  in  order  to  encourage  research  workers 
in  the  future  to  direct  their  efforts  towards  the  solution  of  these  funda- 
mental problems. 

1.  What  should  be  the  criteria  for  selection  of  subject  matter  and  activ- 
ities in  health  education? 

2.  What  standards  of  achievement  in  terms  of  habits,  attitudes  and 
knowledge  may  be  reasonably  set  up  for  completion  of  the  sixrii  grade? 
Junior  high  school?     Senior  high  school? 

3.  Health  needs  are  continuous  throughout  life,  without  much  funda- 
mental variation ;  e.  g.,  it  is  always  necessary  to  care  for  the  teeth.  Should 
the  subject  matter  of  the  health  education  curriculum  be  arranged  to  deal 
with  all  health  needs  every  year  ?    Or,  with  only  a  few  each  year  ? 

[303] 


304  Department  of  Superintendence 

4.  How  may  other  school  subjects  and  activities  best  be  utilized  to  teach 
health  lessons? 

5.  In  a  plan  where  several  school  subjects  are  used  to  teach  health  lessons, 
how  may  supervision  be  exercised  to  prevent  useless  duplication  ? 

6.  How  may  the  results  of  health  education  be  adequately  measured? 

.  7.  What  methods  are  effective  in  securing  the  interest  and  cooperation 
of  the  home? 

8.  What  is  the  proper  place  of  dramatic  materials,  fairy  stories,  games, 
and  other  special  devices  and  entertainment  features  in  a  program  of  health 
education  ?    What  is  their  function ;  what  contribution  do  they  make  ? 

9.  What  factors  in  the  curriculum  affect  the  permanency  of  health 
habits  ? 

10.  What  factors  in  the  curriculum  affect  the  formation  of  attitudes  re- 
lated to  health? 

The  following  research  studies  have  a  direct  application  to  curriculum 
making  in  the  field  of  health  education.  They  are  arranged  in  chronologi- 
cal order. 

STUDY  NO.  i.  Wood,  Thomas  D.,  and  Reesor,  Mary.  A  study  in 
the  child's  health  interests.  (Reported  as  part  of  an  article,  "Health  in- 
struction in  the  elementary  school"),  Teachers  College  Record,  Vol.  XIII, 
No.  3,  May,  1912.    pp.  10-13. 

Purpose.    The  problem  was  to  discover  the  child's  health  interests. 

Method.  A  list  of  questions  bearing  upon  the  subject  of  health,  its  mean- 
ing, means  of  attaining  it,  etc.,  were  submitted  to  pupils  in  the  Speyer 
School,  New  York  City,  and  to  pupils  in  the  fourth  grade  of  a  New  York 
City  East  Side  Boys'  School.  In  the  first  four  grades  in  the  Speyer  School, 
the  questions  were  put  orally  and  to  individual  children,  so  there  was 
no  opportunity  for  one  child  to  be  influenced  by  the  answers  of  others.  In 
the  other  grades,  the  answers  were  written  and  no  names  were  placed  upon 
the  papers.  No  previous  preparation  had  been  made,  and  no  suggestions 
were  given  them  during  the  time  they  wrote. 

Findings.  "In  no  answer  is  there  any  suggestion  that  the  child  is  inter- 
ested in  health  in  the  abstract  or  as  a  future  beneficial  state.  His  sole 
health  concern  exists  in  application  and  relation  to  the  immediate  present. 
Interest  in  growing  well  and  strong  is  nowhere  indicated  save  as  this  state 
gives  increased  power  and  capacity  for  present  enjoyment." 

STUDY  NO.  2.  Hunt,  Jean  Lee;  Johnson,  Buford  J.;  and  Lincoln, 
Edith  M.  Health  education  and  the  nutrition  class.  New  York,  E.  P. 
Dutton  &  Co.    281  pp. 

Purpose.  This  experiment  was  undertaken  "to  explore  the  possibilities 
of  the  nutrition  class  in  a  public  school ;  to  determine  how  far  a  school  can 
successfully  employ  the  nutrition  class  procedure,  and  in  particular  how  far 
the  procedure  itself  can  be  expected  to  reinforce  the  school's  general  pro- 
gram of  health  education." 


The  Third  Yearbook  305 


Method.  Classes  of  underweight  children  were  organized  during  the 
three  years  of  the  experiment  in  grades  1,  4,  5,  6  and  7.  A  moderately  ex- 
tensive program  of  health  examination,  and  correction  of  defects  was  car- 
ried out.  Weekly  weight  records  were  made,  and  instruction  was  given  to 
the  children,  (a)  individually  at  the  time  of  weighing  and  (b)  in  class  ses- 
sions, once  a  week.  The  first  year,  the  class  sessions  were  conducted  by 
physicians;  the  second  and  third  by  nutrition  workers  with  some  teach- 
ing skill.  The  second  year,  the  underweight  groups  formed  separate  classes, 
working  together  in  all  of  their  school  work. 

Findings.  The  study  presents  more  conclusive  evidence  in  regard  to 
control  of  environment,  organization,  and  administration  than  in  regard  to 
courses  of  study. 

The  measurable  results  of  the  experiment  were  expressed  in  the  weight 
records. 

However,  the  various  experiences  of  the  three  years  during  which  the 
study  was  conducted  lead  the  experimenters  to  draw  certain  conclusions  re- 
garding the  teaching  program. 

Four  general  statements  are  made  as  follows: 

1.  Gains  have  been  largely  dependent  on  initial  physical  status  and  propor- 
tionate to  the  relatively  superior  or  inferior  condition  of  the  individual  considered. 

2.  Gains  have  been  largely  influenced  by  the  technique  employed  for  enlisting 
cooperation  from  the  children. 

3.  Other  conditions  being  equal,  gains  have  been  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
influence  exerted  on  the  home  and  the  resulting  parental  cooperation. 

4.  Gains  appear  to  have  been  appreciably  increased  when  favorable  conditions 
directly  affecting  the  nutritional  processes  have  been  introduced  within  the  school 
environment. 

In  regard  to  the  second  of  these  points,  more  detailed  statements  are 
made. 

1.  It  is  necessary  to  provide  sufficient  stimulus  to  insure  the  child's  cooperation 
in  carrying  out  the  prescribed  regime  at  home  and  elsewhere  away  from  school. 

2.  "Evaluation  of  success  and  failure  for  the  child  must  be  measured  by  his 
cooperation  and  by  individual  gain  in  fitness  rather  than  by  his  comparative 
gain  in  relation  to  that  of  his  fellows." 

3.  ".  .  .  the  child  must  be  held  responsible  only  for  his  cooperation  in  such 
activities  as  his  environment  affords." 

4.  "Thus  the  success  of  the  school  program  of  health  education  is  dependent  on 
a  serious  program  of  education  in  the  community." 

5.  Analysis  of  the  activities  provided  in  the  nutrition  class  shows  two  types, 
(a)  those  affecting  the  child  experiences  at  first  hand,  and  (b)  those  affording 
informational  (verbal)  experiences.  The  true  place  of  subject  matter  is  to  re- 
inforce and  interpret  first-hand  experiences  in  a  program  where  health  habits 
are  the  objectives. 

STUDY  NO.  3.  Davis,  Walter  W.  "The  questionnaire  method  in 
health  education."  Chicago.  The  Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  23, 
January.     1923.    pp.    373-386. 

Purpose.  "The  main  purpose  of  the  investigation  was  to  get  at  the  real 
facts  about  the  children's  health  and  surroundings.     These  facts  were  to 


306  Department  of  Superintendence 

form  the  basis  of  a  practical  course  in  hygiene  for  each  teacher,  for,  it  was 
presumed,  the  answers  of  each  group  of  pupils  would  determine  the  in- 
struction which  that  group  needed  and  therefore,  the  instruction  which  the 
teacher  should  emphasize." 

Method.  In  February,  1920,  a  set  of  hygiene  questions  was  submitted 
to  the  pupils  of  12  grade  schools  in  Seattle.  The  results  were  so  promising 
that  the  list,  slightly  revised,  was  submitted  to  Grades  IV  to  VIII  in  all 
the  schools  of  the  city  in  October,  1920;  May,  1921;  October,  1921;  and 
May,  1922.  About  22,000  pupils  answered  the  questions  each  time  they 
were  submitted.  The  list  of  questions  included  24  questions  about  simple 
habits  and  health  conditions,  phrased  to  be  answered  by  "Yes"  and  "No." 

The  method  of  compiling  records  was  simple.  The  teacher  computed 
for  her  room  the  percentage  of  "Yes"  answers  to  the  various  questions  and 
the  central  office  then  computed  school  and  city  averages  from  the  teachers' 
reports. 

No  systematic  specific  attempt  to  base  the  course  of  study  immediately 
upon  the  results  of  the  questionnaire  is  reported.  The  results  of  the  ques- 
tionnaire seem  to  have  offered  guidance  in  curriculum  construction  only 
in  a  general  way. 

Findings,  a.  There  was  improvement  in  practice  of  health  habits  as  a 
result  of  the  work  done. 

Fractional 
basis 


Average   gain 2.7  11 

Personal  health  habits 4.5  18 

Health  conditions .9  4.5 

Note:  The  "fractional  basis"  means  that  the  percentage  of  gain  is  reached  by 
using  the  number  of  pupils  who  needed  to  improve  as  a  basis  (this  would  be  only 
a  fraction  of  all  the  pupils)  and  computing  what  percentage  of  this  number 
actually  did  improve.  The  "100  per  cent"  basis  means  that  the  total  number  of 
pupils  was  used  as  a  basis  for  computing  percentage  of  improvement. 

Mr.  Davis  concludes  that  "the  questionnaire  has  proved  helpful  to  the^ 
teacher,  indicating  to  her  what  phases  of  hygiene  to  stress." 

b.  Since  the  use  of  the  questionnaire  method  in  surveying  health  condi- 
tions is  coming  constantly  into  more  general  use,  it  is  an  important  question 
whether  or  not  the  questionnaire  submitted  directly  to  the  pupils  gives 
reliable  information.  Mr.  Davis  concludes  that  the  replies  given  by  the 
children  were  fairly  reliable,  "since  the  reported  results  were  consistent  and 
supported  by  general  knowledge  and  experience,  and  by  our  specific  knowl- 
edge.about  the  individual  schools." 

STUDY  NO.  4.  Committee,  Early  Elementary  Department,  Kala- 
mazoo Public  Schools.  Tentative  revision  of  achievements  section  course 
of  Study:  Health  achievements.  Published  by  Kalamazoo  Public  Schools. 
8  pages.  ' 


The  Third  Yearbook  307 

Purpose.  The  problem  of  this  research  was  to  ascertain  what  achieve- 
ments in  health,  practical  efficiency,  citizenship  and  leisure  may  be  expected 
of  children  of  various  stages  of  development.  Only  health  achievements 
are  here  reported. 

Method.  The  "Achievements"  were  grouped  and  listed  carefully  and 
passed  out  to  the  forty-six  teachers  in  the  department.  Three  different 
groups  of  children  were  then  measured  : 

Group  1.  519  children  just  entering  kindergarten  from  their  homes.  These 
children  were  observed  and  checked  during  their  first  two  weeks  of  kindergarten 
experience. 

Group  2.  63  5  children  just  passing  into  first  grade  from  kindergarten,  who  were 
measured  just  before  promotion. 

Group  3.  638  children  passing  from  first  grade  into  second  grade,  who  were 
also  checked  just  before  promotion. 

In  order  to  determine  whether  or  not  a  child  had  achieved  a  habit,  skill, 
knowledge,  or  appreciation,  close  observation  and  study  of  each  individual 
child  was  necessary.  A  habit  was  considered  to  be  properly  established 
when  the  activity  was  repeated  four  or  five  consecutive  days  with  no  trans- 
gressions. 

A  skill  was  considered  achieved  when  a  child  showed  ability  in  any  given 
activity  in  keeping  with  his  stage  of  development.  Knowledge  was  not 
difficult  to  measure  with  children's  free  conversation,  record  summaries,  and 
child  study  charts  for  reference.  The  matter  of  appreciations  were  checked 
by  the  child's  emotional  response  to  specific  situations. 

Findings.  The  statistics  from  the  eleven  different  schools  and  thirty- 
three  groups  were  then  compiled  and  the  percentages  of  total  number  of 
children  in  each  group  having  achieved  the  given  habits,  skills,  etc.,  were 
tabulated.  In  most  instances,  growth  in  achievement  from  that  of  children 
of  little  kindergarten  experience  to  that  of  children  having  had  both  kinder- 
garten and  first-grade  experience  may  be  noted.  The  results  are  sum- 
marized in  Table  84.  As  a  result  of  revision,  a  list  of  home  achievements 
which  may  be  expected  of  a  child  on  his  entrance  to  kindergarten  is  in  the 
process  of  development. 

Note:  The  committee  of  Kalamazoo  teachers  who  are  carrying  on  this  work 
expressed  some  reluctance  to  have  these  tentative  results  published,  since  they  are 
still  being  worked  over,  and  a  new  revision  will  appear  in  January,  1925  or  soon 
thereafter.  However,  upon  request,  they  submitted  their  findings  to  the  Yearbook 
with  the  statement  that  this  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  finished  piece  of  work,  but 
as  a  beginning. 

Table  84.  Percentage  of  Pupils  Achieving  Health  Habits  in 
Kalamazoo.,  Michigan 

Group  I.  Percentage  of  total  number  of  children  who  upon  entering  kindergarten 
had  achieved  health  habits,  skills,  etc. 

Group  II.  Percentage  of  total  number  of  children  passing  into  first  grade  who 
had  achieved  health  habits,  skills,  etc. 

Group  III.  Percentage  of  total  number  of  children  passing  into  second  grade 
who  had  achieved  health  habits,  skills,  etc. 


308 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Group  I         Group  II  Group  III 

519                  635  638 

Number  of  children                                                       per  cent         per  cent  per  cent 
Habits 

1.  Drinks  plenty  of  water 48                 67  94 

2.  Eats  with  mouth  closed  and  does  not  talk  while 

eating  24                 55  48 

3.  Does  not  bring  candy  to  school 68                  53  73 

4.  Comes  to  school  clean 79                 84  81 

5.  Washes  hands  before  eating 42                 63  76 

6.  Uses  handkerchief  properly 68                 66  78 

7.  Engages   in  vigorous    activity,   out   of   doors   if 

possible    66                65  88 

8.  Maintains  good  posture  at  all  times 56                43  64 

9.  Retains  self-possession  when  hurt  or  in   emer- 

gencies       46                 61  66 

10.  Covers  sneeze  or  cough 23                 51  58 

Skills 

1.  Makes  proper  use  of  drinking  apparatus 62                 82  91 

2.  Manipulates    eating    utensils    properly    during 

school   lunch    (bottle  or  cup) 36                 82  76 

3.  Is  able  to  wash  own  hands  and  face 61                 72  97 

4.  Makes  proper  use  of  toilet 65                 83  95 

5.  Has  proper  control  of  body 63                 70  85 

6.  Relaxes  during  rest  period 46                 69  79 

7.  Retains  cheerful  demeanor 66                74  86 

8.  Avoids  getting  wet  or  cold 39                 52  69 

Knowledge 

1.  Plenty  of  water  is  necessary  to  health 30                 52  99 

2.  Clean  wholesome  food  is  necessary  to  health..   45                 75  93 

3.  Fast  and  irregular  eating  is  harmful 27                 58  80 

4.  Milk,   eggs,   cereals,   fruits,   coarse    bread    and 

butter  are  wholesome  foods 43                 79  94 

5.  Personal  cleanliness  is  necessary  to  health 49                 69  81 

6.  Wholesome  exercise  is  necessary  to  health....   26                  50  75 

7.  Going  to  bed  early,  with  windows  open,  is  nec- 

essary to  good  health 39                75  88 

Appreciation 

1.  Enjoys  cold  pure  water 67                 83  92 

2.  Enjoys  the  feeling  of  cleanliness 64                77  82 

3.  Enjoys  exhilaration  following  wholesome  vig- 

orous activity  67                 64  94 

4.  Keenly  enjoys  fresh  air 49                 55  94 

STUDY  NO.  5.  Payne,  E.  George.  .  The  measurement  of  social  val- 
ues— A  scale  for  measuring  health.  Chapter  XV — Yearbook  for  the  New 
York  City  Association  for  Scientific  Study  of  Education.  Yonkers,  N.  Y. 
World  Book  Company.    1924.    pp.  160-172. 

Purpose.  The  problem  was  to  devise  a  scale  for  measuring  not  merely 

what  the  child  knows,  but  primarily  for  measuring  the  extent  to  which 

skills,  knowledges,  and  attitudes  function  in  the  individual  in  his  social 
relationships.  This  study  deals  with  measurement  of  one  group  of  social 
values — that  is,  those  related  to  health. 

Method,  (a)  The  first  step  in  the  construction  of  the  scale  was  the 
determination  of  the  health  practices  which  are  essential  to  the  individual's 


The  Third  Yearbook  309 


health.  The  health  regime  of  the  open  air  school,  the  literature  and  experi- 
ence of  experts  were  the  sources  from  which  the  tentative  list  of  desirable 
health  practices  was  compiled. 

(b)  The  next  step  was  to  estimate  the  value  to  be  assigned  to  each  item 
in  the  scale.  This  was  first  decided  upon  by  judgment  of  those  engaged  in 
health  work. 

(c)  At  this  point,  experimental  work  began.  Three  hundred  children 
were  selected  from  the  children  in  elementary  and  junior  high  schools. 
Half  of  these  children  were  selected  from  the  best  conditioned  pupils,  and 
half  from  the  worst  conditioned.  The  selection  was  made  by  medical 
inspectors  or  nurses.  The  children  were  examined  to  determine  whether 
a  positive  correlation  appeared  between  their  practices  and  their  health  con- 
ditions. 

The  correlation  was  marked.  Eighty-five  per  cent  of  those  rated  as  good 
or  excellent  in  health  by  the  doctors  and  nurses  were  distributed  in  the 
upper  range  of  the  scale,"  or  received  more  than  124-178  out  of  a  possible 
247-355  points,  while  a  similar  proportion  of  those  rated  unsatisfactory 
by  these  experts  ranged  in  the  lower  half  or  below  124-178  points. 

(d)  Following  this  preliminary  experimentation,  the  scale  was  used 
with  fifty  thousand  school  children  of  the  elementary  and  high  schools, 
with  the  result  that  standards  of  achievement  were  set  up  for  each  grade, 
and  the  points  were  arranged  in  the  light  of  experience  to  make  a  five- 
hundred  point  scale.  The  standard  of  achievement  was  determined  not  by 
the  median,  but  by  the  accomplishment  of  the  best  conditioned  children. 

Findings,  a.  The  correlation  between  health  practices  and  the  actual 
health  of  the  individual  is  high  enough  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that  there 
was  a  close  relationship  between  the  health  practices  as  outlined  in  the 
scale,  and  the  health  condition  of  the  children  as  determined  by  the  medical 
examination. 

b.  "The  possibilities  of  measurement  of  social  values  of  education  by  use 
of  the  health  scale  are  best  indicated  by  the  values  of  its  use  already  appear- 
ing from  the  experiments  so  far  carried  out.  Some  of  these  are  summarized 
in  the  following  statements  from  those  using  the  scale : 

( 1 )  "The  scale  acquaints  the  pupil  with  clear,  definite  concise  facts, 
indicating  what  practices  are  essential  for  health. 

(2)  "Because  the  scale  can  be  scored  and  the  results  compared  with 
standards,  the  scale  motivates  health  instruction. 

(3)  "The  scale  provides  a  valuable  outline  for  the  teacher  to  follow, 
and  provides  her  with  a  standard  for  judging  the  health  practices 
of  children.     It  makes  her  conscious  of  health  needs. 

(4)  "Since  the  emphasis  is  upon  practices,  the  hygiene  work  will  carry 
over  into  the  home,  resulting  in  closer  cooperation  at  home  and 
school. 

(5)  "The  scale  turns  the  attention  of  the  teacher  from  the  immediate 
school  objectives  to  life's  practices,  with  a  general  beneficial  effect 
not  only  on  instruction  in  health,  but  other  instruction  as  well. 


310  Department  of  Superintendence 

"It  is  safe  to  generalize  from  the  experience  in  the  use  of  the  health 
scale  (1)  that  the  methods  of  measurement  may  be  refined  to  the  point  of 
adequate  tests  of  instruction;  (2)  that  appropriate  standards  may  be  set  up 
for  guidance,  and  that  similar  scales  may  be  constructed  which  will  measure 
the  social  results  of  instruction  and  provide  standards  for  other  social  objec- 
tives." 

STUDY  NO.  6.  Payne,  E.  George.  Survey  of  heqlth  needs  of  San 
Antonio,  Texas,  as  a  basis  of  the  reconstruction  of  the  curriculum  in  health 
and  safety  education.  Unpublished  manuscript  in  possession  of  author, 
Professor  of  Educational  Sociology,  New  York  Univ.,  New  York  City. 

Purpose.  The  problem  was  to  determine  the  health  and  safety  needs  of 
children  in  San  Antonio,  Texas,  as  a  basis  of  the  requirements  of  the  recon- 
struction of  the  curriculum  in  that  city,  and  insofar  as  the  facts  are  typical 
the  reconstruction  for  the  whole  state  in  health  and  safety  education. 

Method.  The  method  was  a  survey  of  three  typical  schools,  each 
representing  a  stratum  of  the  population,  namely:  the  negro  school,  the 
school  for  Mexican  children,  and  the  school  for  native-born  white  children. 
The  method  of  gathering  data  was  through  the  use  of:  (1)  the  Payne 
health  scale;  (2)  statements  of  children  as  to  the  food  consumed  during 
one  day,  as  a  check  up  against  the  data  gathered  from  the  scale;  and  (3) 
teachers'  observations.  The  attempt  was  made  to  discover  the  practices  of 
the  children  relating  to  food,  air,  drink,  exercise,  sleep,  posture,  cleanliness, 
cleanliness  of  clothing,  safety  and  civic  practices. 

Findings.  The  results  indicate  that  a  study  of  an  examination  of  chil- 
dren's needs  in  health  and  safety  is  necessary  in  any  community  before  the 
educational  process  can  go  on  intelligently  and  profitably.  The  survey  dis- 
covered that  on  the  whole  the  white  children  showed  the  best  health  prac- 
tices, the  Mexicans  next,  and  the  negroes,  the  worst.  However,  in  certain 
items  such  as  sleep  and  exercise  the  needs  of  the  white  children  were  greater 
than  those  of  either  the  colored  or  the  Mexican.  While  it  was  found 
that  approximately  50  per  cent  of  the  children  fail  to  observe  health  prac- 
tices necessary  to  normal  growth,  both  mentally  and  physically,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  discover  in  any  particular  school,  grade,  or  room  which  of  the  chil- 
dren are  engaging  in  unsatisfactory  practices  and  center  instruction  upon 
those  having  different  needs.  The  conclusion  from  this  study  is  that  before 
education  in  health  and  in  safety  begins,  at  least  the  specific  needs  of  chil- 
dren should  be  determined.  So  far  as  any  general  conclusions  may  be 
drawn  they  are  to  the  effect  that  the  conclusion  from  any  survey  of  this 
kind  may  be  used  as  a  starting-point  for  the  determination  of  the  needs  of 
children  of  other  communities,  but  the  needs  of  any  community  must  be 
discovered,  as  they  vary  greatly.  The  health  practices  also  vary  according 
to  local  customs  and  conditions. 

STUDY  NO.  7.  Strang,  Ruth.  A  health  information  test.  To  be 
published  in  1925.    About  100  pp. 


The  Third  Yearbook  311 


Purpose.  To  construct  a  test  of  general  health  information  and  through 
the  test  to  find  out,  among  other  things,  what  health  knowledge  children 
of  different  grades  have  acquired. 

Method.  The  test  thus  far  has  been  given  in  two  New  York  City 
schools  in  grades  3-8  to  approximately  350  children  and  the  per  cent  of 
correct  responses  to  each  exercise  has  been  calculated. 

Significance  in  curriculum  construction : 

If  the  tests  are  given  in  schools  in  various  parts  of  the  country  where 
good  instruction  in  health  has  been  given,  and  if  the  children  in  a  certain 
grade  fail  to  acquire  knowledge  of  certain  facts,  this  would  indicate  that 
these  facts  are  not  suitable  to  the  learning  capacity  of  children  of  that  age. 
This  information  would  give  an  experimental  basis  for  placing  a  given 
fact  or  group  of  facts  in  a  certain  grade. 

A  few  of  the  specific  facts  found  to  be  most  difficult  for  the  group  tested 

were: 

The  common  house  fly  is  usually  hatched  in  manure. 

Pneumonia  is  directly  caused  by  bacteria. 

Cold  baths  are  good  for  most  people. 

The  average  number  of  calories  in  a  glass  of  whole  milk  is  150. 

The  gastric  juice  begins  the  digestion  of  meat. 

The  man  who  did  the  most  to  establish  the  germ  theory  of  disease  was  Pasteur. 

Protein  is  needed  for  building  muscle. 

In  general,  the  more  difficult  facts  were  physiological  facts,  bacteriological 
and  the  technical  aspects  of  an  adequate  diet,  specific  knowledge  such  as  the 
distance  away  from  the  eyes  one  should  hold  a  book  and  the  best  temperature 
for  a  room. 

Some  of  the  facts  found  to  be  easiest  for  this  group  of  children  were : 

The  best  food  to  eat  with  cereal  is  milk. 

Just  before  meal  time  the  most  important  thing  to  do  is  to  wash  hands  and  face. 

At  meal  time  we  should  sit  down  at  the  table  and  eat  slowly. 

Fruits  and  vegetables  are  good  for  us'  because  they  help  keep  us  well. 

The  same  towel  can  safely  be  used  by  only  one  person. 

A  good  food  to  choose  for  breakfast  is  hot  cereal. 

There  is  less  danger  of  your  giving  a  cold  to  some  one  else  if  you  cover  your 
face  when  coughing  and  sneezing. 

Which  do  you  think  is  best  for  a  child  to  drink — coffee,  soda,  tea,  milk,  cereal 
coffee?   (to  be  answered  by  underlining  correct  word). 

Three  good  foods  to  choose  for  lunch  are  hot  soup,  baked  potato,  and  milk. 

In  general,  the  easiest  facts  were  a  statement  of  the  simple  fundamental 
health  habits,  a  knowledge  of  which  are  good  foods  to  choose,  and  general 
statements  such  as  fruits  are  healthful,  and  "a  kitchen  should  be  kept 
clean." 

B.  Physical  Education  Studies 

Some  of  the  important  questions  which  the  maker  of  a  curriculum  in 
physical  education  must  meet  are  as  follows: 

1.  Has  the  "job  or  community  analysis"  been  applied  to  the  specific 
situation  in  order  that  definite  objectives  or  needs  may  be  revealed? 


•512  Department  op  Superintendence 

2,  Have  all  phases  oi  the  program  been  subjected  to  scientific  investiga- 
tion and  selected  on  their  inn  it  instead  01  being  accepted  because  of  tradi- 
tional use  r* 

^.  I  Joes  the  program  fit  into  the  plan  of  general  education  in  your  com- 
munity, i.  <•-,  are  they  properly  correlated  and  coordinated? 

4.  Has  suflii  ieni  time  been  provided  to  assure  a  reasonable  achievement 

of    objectives? 

5.  What    plan    lias   been    adopted    lor    training   the   classroom    teacher   to 

effectively  carry  on  the  program  in  the  elementary  school? 

().    Is   the    program    of    activities    well    balanced    so    as    to    avoid    an    over 
abundance  of  any   one  particular  phase  of   tin-   work? 
7.    lias  provision  been  made  for  after  school  activity? 
K.    ('.an  the  objectives  be  effectively  measured? 

9.  Is  the  program  so  constructed  as  to  eliminate  the  possibility  of  nervous 
oi   muscular  st  rain  ? 

10.  Is  the  program  graded  in  keeping  with  psychological  age  interests? 

11.  Do  the  activities  "lead  on"  or  are  they  merely   "ends  in  themselves"? 
The    following    research   studies   have   a   direct    bearing  upon   curriculum 

construction  in  physical  education,     They  are  arranged  in  chronological 

oldel . 

STUDY  NO.  8.  I'ost,  L.  M.  Grouping  children  for  physical  r/Jiciency 
test.      Reports  of  the    National   ( 'oininit tee  on   Standard    Physical    Efficiency 

Tests  for  Elementary  Schools.    City  and  Rural,  pp.  10-11. 

Purpose.   A  study  of  age,  grade,  weight,  and  height  classification. 

Method.  The  performances  oi  25,000  boys  in  eleven  athletic  events  were 
taken.     The  height,   weight,  age  and  grade  were   recorded. 

Findings.  The  competition  placement  of  any  pupil  is  best  determined 
by  taking  his  age  in  months  plus  two  times  his  weight  in  pounds.  Classifica- 
tion  BgureS  will    result    I  rom   this   formula. 

STUDY  NO.  g.  Reilly,  Frederick  J.  "A  rational  classification  of  boys 
and  girls  for  athletic  competition."  American  Physical  Education  Review 
Vol.  XXIII,  No.   I.     January,  1918.     pp.   13-14. 

Purpose.  To  provide  a  rational  classification  for  boys  and  girls  in  elemen- 
tary school  athletics.  Each  pupil  to  be  classilied  according  to  an  exponent 
derived  by  adding  his  age,  grade,  height,  and  weight.  After  being  placed 
in  a  respective  group  he  is  encouraged  to  strive  for  individual  proficiency 
lowa id  ;i  standard,  arbitrarily  set  up  for  his  respective  group,  and  by  means 
of  averaging  group  scores  to  compete  with  all  other  groups.  The  grades 
included  are  5A,  5B,  6A,  6B,  7A,  7B,  HA,  and  8B.    These  are  divided 

into  two  divisions,  Juniors,  SA  to  6B,  and   Seniors,  7A  to  8B. 

Method,  a.  In  fifteen  minutes  it  was  possible  to  classify  a  class  of  forty 
pupils,  by  adding  the  age,  grade,  height,  and  weight  of  each  pupil. 

b.  This  detei  mines  the  pupils'  classification  for  the  ensuing  year. 


The  Third  Yearbook  313 


c.  A  system  of  handicaps  was  arbitrarily  established  based  on  classifica- 
tion. 

d.  Following  several  years  of  practice  a  system  of  standards  for  each 
event  has  been  arranged  for  boys  and  girls.  These  standards  are  not 
fixed  but  are  changeable.  The  object  is  always  to  keep  them  practically 
within  reach  of  all,  yet  high  enough  to  serve  as  an  incentive  to  the  best. 

e.  In  all  activities  there  is  a  maximum  beyond  which  no  credit  is  given. 
With  the  full  program  the  total  number  of  points  attainable  is  200. 

Findings,  a.  There  is  little  difference  in  the  distribution  of  height  and 
weight  between  the  sexes  in  the  last  four  years  of  the  elementary  school. 

b.  Mr.  Reilly  believes  that  the  absolute  satisfaction  of  the  pupils  after 
many  months  of  extensive  competition  is  conclusive  proof  that  the  scheme 
is  fundamentally  correct. 

STUDY  NO.  10.  McCloy,  C.  H.  "Comparison  of  athletic  activities." 
American  Physical  Education  Review,  Vol.  XXVI,  pp.  1-13,  1921. 

Purpose.  To  derive  a  statistical  and  mathematical  method  of  devising 
athletic  scoring  tables. 

Method.  By  means  of  athletic  almanacs  for  the  last  ten  years,  Mr. 
McCloy  plotted  data  for  all  meets.  The  pound  probability  curve  was 
smoothed  by  arithmetical  means.  Likewise,  a  standard  deviation  curve  was 
plotted.  Tables  have  been  worked  out  showing  the  amount  of  kinetic 
energy  used  in  running,  jumping,  etc.,  according  to  velocity.  Through 
algebraic  expressions  he  determined  the  formula  of  the  curve. 

Findings.  Only  270  individuals  out  of  one  million  fell  out  of  the  range 
of  the  curve. 

STUDY  NO.  ii.  Williams,  Jesse  Feiring;  Atkinson,  Ruth  V.;  and 
Brace,  David  K.  "A  comparison  of  formal  gymnastics  and  play." 
Teachers  College  Record,  Volume  XXIII,  pp.  327-360.     1922. 

Purpose.  A  comparative  study  of  the  relative  Value  of  formal  gym- 
nastics and  play  for  fourth  grade  pupils. 

Method.  Two  fourth  grade  classes  of  equal  ratings  were  selected.  One 
class  received  instruction  in  formal  gymnastics  and  the  other  in  a  program 
of  play  and  games.  They  were  tested  in  October  and  again  in  May  in 
posture,  skill,  alertness,  and  obedience.  Later,  statistics  were  obtained 
regarding  weight,  height,  girth  of  chest,  strength  of  right  and  left  fore- 
arm, and  lung  capacity.  A  highly  trained  supervisor,  skilled  in  both  types 
of  work,  taught  both  classes  throughout. 

Findings.  The  results  showed  that  the  Play  Group  made  greater  prog- 
ress in  all  points  except  the  thrusting  test  with  wooden  foil,  which  was  one 
of  the  tests  of  skill. 

STUDY  NO.  12.  Judelsohn,  Samuel  J.  The  comparative  ability  of 
mentally  retarded  and  normal  children  in  track  and  field  work.  Division 
of  Physical  Education,  Board  of  Public  Education,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


314  Department  of  Superintendence 

Purpose,  a.  What  are  the  results,  in  actual  measurements,  of  the  par- 
ticipation of  the  mentally  retarded  child  in  this  type  of  work? 

b.  How  does  the  mentally  retarded  child  compare  with  the  normal  child 
in  track  and  field  ability? 

Method.  The  records  of  1524  mentally  retarded  boys  and  of  638  men- 
tally retarded  girls  were  gathered,  using  the  four  standard  events — stand- 
ing broad  jump,  ball  throw  overhead,  50  yard  dash,  and  chinning  for  boys 
and  knee  raising  for  girls.  The  schools  involved  were  8  concentration 
centres,  where  each  child  receives  a  daily  30-  or  40-minute  period  in  the 
gymnasium.  The  performances  in  each  event  were  recorded  monthly  and 
the  best  record  during  the  school  term  was  used  in  the  investigation. 

To  make  the  comparison  with  normal  children  the  records  of  1210  boys 
and  814  girls  were  secured  under  conditions,  as  far  as  was  possible,  the 
same  as  those  in  the  special  concentration  centres ;  i.e.,  time  allotment, 
equipment,  type  of  teacher,  play  space,  etc. 

From  the  data  secured  three  sets  of  tables  were  formed — one  set  based 
upon  age,  one  upon  height,  and  one  upon  weight.  Results  were  tabulated 
on  the  basis  of  average  performance  and  on  the  basis  of  70  per  cent  passing 
performance.  (The  latter  being  the  point  on  the  distribution  table  which, 
if  set  as  an  aim,  70  per  cent  of  those  measured  would  pass.) 

Findings.  As  far  as  the  data  in  this  investigation  shows,  the  following 
conclusions  may  be  drawn: 

a.  Mentally  retarded  boys  are  shorter  in  height  and  lighter  in  weight 
than  normal  boys ;  the  girls  are  shorter  in  all  ages  and  lighter  up  to  the  age 
of  12,  but  are  about  same  weight  as  the  normal  girls  from  13  to  15. 

b.  Mentally  retarded  boys  jump  and  throw  farther  and  run  faster  than 
mentally  retarded  girls. 

c.  Mentally  retarded  boys  are  from  one  and  a  half  to  three  years  lower 
in  average  performance  than  normal  boys  in  the  four  events  used ;  mentally 
retarded  girls  are  frorn  two  to  seven  years  lower  than  normal  girls. 

d.  Ability  in  track  and  field  events  should  be  taken  into  consideration 
as  one  index  of  the  physical  age  of  the  child. 

These  findings  are  significant  in  adjusting  the  physical  education  curricu- 
lum to  individual  needs. 

SECTION  II.  RELATIONSHIP  OF  OTHER  KINDS  OF  RESEARCH 

TO  CURRICULUM  CONSTRUCTION  IN  THE  FIELDS  OF 

HEALTH  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Educational  researches  in  the  fields  of  health  and  physical  education  are 
very  limited  and  represent  only  a  beginning  of  the  studies  and  carefuly 
conducted  experiments  which  are  requisite  for  any  adequate  basis  for  the 
makers  of  curricula  in  these  subjects.  Many  types  of  research  must  be 
carried  on  before  the  activities  in  these  fields  can  be  placed  on  a  firmly 
scientific  basis.  There  are  already  available,  however,  the  results  of 
research  studies  which,  while  they  do  not  deal  directly  with  curriculum 


The  Third  Yearbook  315 


construction,  nevertheless  have  an  important  bearing  upon  that  task.  The 
attention  of  those  who  are  making  curricula  in  these  fields  is  called  to  the 
importance  of  the  following  kinds  of  research: 

A.  Growth  studies.  Studies  which  attempt  to  ascertain  standards  of 
normal  growth  and  development  have  significantly  influenced  the  content  of 
courses  of  study  in  health  and  physical  education  by  the  fact  that  they  set 
up  objective  standards  of  achievement,  both  for  pupil  and  teacher. 

The  "Revised  Weight-Height-Age  Tables"  of  Bird  T.  Baldwin,  and 
Thomas  D.  Wood,  are  widely  used.  They  were  published  by  the  American 
Child  Health  Association  in  a  pamphlet  issued  in  1923. 

Similarly,  studies  which  seek  to  discover  whether  there  are  correlations 
between  physical  and  mental  achievement,  or  between  height-weight  and 
school  classification,  have  an  indirect  bearing  upon  curriculum  making, 
especially  in  connection  with  the  tendency  to  place  pupils  of  the  same  grade 
in  school  in  x,  y,  z  groups  according  to  the  rapidity  with  which  it  is  pre- 
sumed that  they  will  advance  in  their  studies. 

The  replies  to  the  inquiries  of  this  subcommittee  indicate  that  there  is  a 
relatively  large  amount  of  research  being  carried  on  in  studying  the  relation- 
ships of  physical  condition  and  mental  achievement. 

B.  Laboratory  research.  The  accuracy  of  much  of  the  subject  matter  in 
health  and  physical  education  has  been  or  should  be  ascertained  through 
laboratory  research  in  physiology,  physics,  biochemistry,  bacteriology,  nutri- 
tion, etc.  For  example,  the  discoveries  concerning  vitamins  within  ten 
years  have  radically  changed  teaching  regarding  selection  of  foods.  The 
investigation  of  the  New  York  Commission  for  the  Study  of  Ventilation 
has  changed  our  teaching  about  proper  heating  and  ventilating,  and  has 
thrown  doubt  upon  some  points  hitherto  unquestioned. 

C.  Nutrition  class  experiments.  Nutrition  class  experiments,  usually  give 
more  guidance  in  problems  of  supervision  and  administration,  cooperation 
with  the  home  and  methods  of  efficiently  reducing  malnutrition  than  in 
curriculum  construction,  but  they  point  to  certain  principles  in  selection 
of  subject  matter,  as  illustrated  in  Study  No.  2,  reported  in  preceding 
pages. 

D.  Health  supervision  studies.  One  of  the  generally  accepted  though 
not  practiced  principles  in  health  and  physical  education  is  that  the  activ- 
ities of  the  course  of  study  should  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  individual 
children  as  well  as  to  the  groups  as  a  whole.  The  health  examination  is 
one  of  the  most  reliable  ways  of  ascertaining  individual  needs,  and  health 
examination  records  of  a  class  should  be  consulted  as  one  source  of  guid- 
ance in  directing  classroom  activities  in  health  education.  Studies  made  as 
to  the  best  ways  of  making  and  recording  health  examinations  therefore 
have  an  indirect  bearing  upon  the  course  of  study. 

E.  Dental  education  studies.  Experience  with  dental  education  over  a 
period  of  ten  years  in  Bridgeport,  Connecticut,  gives  evidence  that  class- 
room education  is  an  effective  method  in  reducing  the  number  of  children 


316  Department  of  Superintendence 

who  have  defective  teeth,  thus  justifying  the  inclusion  of  mouth  hygiene 
in  the  course  of  study. 

F.  Hygiene  of  the  school  plant.  Research  in  this  field  has  an  indirect 
bearing  upon  course  of  study  activities.  For  example,  what  we  teach  regard- 
ing open  window  or  open  air  rooms,  may  be  either  supported  or  contradicted 
by  actual  school  room  conditions.  There  is  still  doubt  regarding  the  best 
procedure  in  many  instances;  more  research  is  needed  here. 

G.  Hygiene  of  instruction.  Very  little  conclusive  research  exists  in  this 
field,  but  whatever  study  has  been  made,  affects  our  procedure  with  regard 
to  formation  of  healthful  mental  habits  of  work,  study,  social  relationships, 
control  of  emotions  in  classroom,  instruction,  etc.  These  mental  habits, 
while  not  a  part  of  a  formal  course  of  study  are  an  extremely  important 
factor  in  health  education. 

Incompleted  Studies,  Reports  of  Which  Are  Not  Yet  Available 

The  Subcommittee  has  received  notices  of  the  following  studies,  related 
to  curriculum  construction  in  health  and  physical  education,  which  are  not 
yet  completed,  but  which  will  for  the  most  part,  be  completed  within  a 
year.    A  list  of  these  studies  follows : 

Berry,  Elmer.  Ethical  content  in  physical  education — now  in  preparation  as 
graduate  thesis  at  Harvard. 

Brim,  Orville  G.  Ohio  State  University.  A  survey  of  health  conditions,  per- 
sonal and  family  habits  and  attitudes  in  certain  rural  communities  in  eight  coun- 
ties in  Ohio. 

Cairns,  Laura.  Critical  study  of  content  of  health  education  in  secondary 
schools,  with  regard  to  its  adequacy  in  dealing  with  the  chief  causes  of  mortality, 
morbidity,  and  disability.  To  be  presented  in  fulfillment  of  requirements  for  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Education,  at  Univ.  of  California, — probably  to  be  completed 
in  June,  1925. 

Child  health  demonstrations  are  now  being  carried  on  in  Joliet,  111.,  Fargo, 
N.  Dak.  and  Athens,  Ga.,  which  include  health  and  physical  education  programs, 
but  reports  are  not  yet  available.  Findings  will  be  published  by  Commonwealth 
Fund  and  American  Child  Health  Association. 

Cook,  Inez  M.  Physical  development  and  academic  achievement.  Unpublished 
thesis  for  M.  A.  degree,  Univ.  of  Nebraska. 

Department  of  Medical  Inspection,  Trenton  Public  Schools.  Relation  of  physical 
defects  and  progress  in  school.     To  be  published  in  July,  1925. 

Goodrich,  I.  V.,  Director  of  standard  tests,  Public  Schools,  Lincoln,  Nebraska. 
Relation  Between  Extreme  Underweight  and  School  Work. 

Hetherington,  Clark  W.  (Under  auspices  of  the  State  Charities  Aid  Associa- 
tion and  the  Milbank  Memorial  Fund.)  Experimental  development  of  a  school 
program  in  teaching  health. 


Psychology  of  teaching  health.  A  special  research  program  with  children  and 
teachers  in  New  York  City  with  cooperation  of  workers  in  other  cities. 

McCurdy,  James  Huff.  International  Y.  M.  C.  A.  College,  Springfield,  Mass. 
Research  on  motivation  of  physical  education.     Now  in  progress. 

Norton,  H.  J.  Director  of  Health  Education,  Public  Schools,  Rochester,  New 
York.     Results  of  four  years  of  nutrition  class  work.     To  be  published  in  1925. 

Rowe,  Floyd  A.  Department  of  Physical  Welfare,  Cleveland  Public  Schools, 
Cleveland,  Ohio.  Study  of  needs  of  entire  field  in  physical  welfare  in  Cleveland 
for  the  formulation  of  a  course  of  study. 


The  Third  Yearbook  317 

Turner,  C.  E.  Professor  of  Public  Health,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology. 

a.  Development  of  methods   of  health   education  into   a  unified  program  for 
all  ages. 

b.  Measure  of  health  improvement  resulting  from  health  education  program. 
Wolfe,  Katherine  K.,   M.  D.     Effect   of   a  nutritional  program   on  physical   and 

mental  improvement  of  underweight  children.     Lincoln,  Nebraska. 

SECTION  III.  SUMMARY 
A.  General  Summary  of  Trend  of  Research  Findings  in  Health  Education 

1.  A  survey  of  the  local  community  health  needs  and  of  the  health  needs 
of  individual  children  is  the  most  valid  basis  for  the  construction  of  the 
curriculum  in  health  education.  The  submission  of  a  questionnaire  to  the 
pupils  themselves,  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  gives  information  to  the 
teacher  which  is  helpful  in  placing  the  emphasis  where  it  is  most  needed. 

2.  It  is  necessary  for  the  school,  the  home  and  the  community  to  co- 
operate if  the  health  education  program  of  the  school  is  to  be  effective. 

3.  The  tendency  in  health  education  is  to  measure  and  evaluate  results 
in  terms  of  its  effectiveness  in  solving  the  actual  health  problems  of  the 
individual  and  the  community  rather  than  in  terms  of  knowledge  alone. 
Study  No.  5  reports  the  construction  of  a  scale  based  upon  this  principle 
and  states  that  the  use  of  such  a  scale  "turns  the  attention  of  the  teacher 
from  the  immediate  school  objectives  to  life  practices,  with  great  benefit 
not  only  on  instruction  in  health,  but  other  instruction  as  well." 

The  acceptance  of  the  criterion  of  social  utility  makes  a  profound  change 
in  the  presentation  of  subject  matter  as  well  as  in  the  measurements  of 
results. 

This  is  not  indicated  in  any  of  the  research  studies  reported,  but  is  very 
apparent  in  courses  of  study  in  which  an  attempt  is  made  to  limit  subject 
matter  to  the  materials  which  boys  and  girls  can  actually  use  in  life. 
Several  such  courses  of  study  were  brought  to  the  attention  of  this  com- 
mittee, but  have  not  been  indicated  in  this  report,  since  they  do  not  represent 
the  results  of  controlled  research  although  they  are  the  outcome  of  extensive 
and  scholarly  work. 

4.  Although  the  final  measurement  of  health  education  values  consists 
in  evaluation  of  its  usefulness  in  solution  of  health  problems,  it  is  also 
necessary  to  devise  measures  of  the  informational  or  knowledge  aspects  of 
the  health  education  program.  Health  information  tests  should  be  made 
and  tried  out  to  give  an  experimental  basis  for  placing  information  in  suit- 
able grades.    One  such  test  has  been  constructed. 

5.  Available  research  does  not  enable  the  committee  to  make  a  definite 
statement  regarding  standards  of  achievement  for  any  grade. 

Study  No.  4  indicates  that  achievements  in  health  habits,  skills,  knowl- 
edge, and  appreciations,  show  appreciable  growth  from  entrance  into  kinder- 
garten till  the  time  of  completing  the  first  grade.  More  extensive  studies 
along  the  same  line  are  needed  before  minimum  standards  of  achievement 
can  be  set  up. 


318  Department  of  Superintendence 

6.  The  subject  matter  of  health  education  should  not  emphasize  the  value 
of  health  as  an  end  in  itself  so  much  as  the  value  of  health  as  a  means  to 
accomplishing  interesting  and  worth-while  things.  With  elementary  school 
children  the  emphasis  should  be  on  the  relationship  of  health  to  the  activ- 
ities of  the  immediate  present  rather  than  the  distant  future. 

Note. — Although  so  little  actual  research  is  available  in  the  field  of 
health  education,  a  considerable  body  of  experience  points  to  certain  prin- 
ciples which  are  generally  accepted  as  sound.  A  discussion  of  these  prin- 
ciples falls  outside  the  scope  of  this  report.  The  most  recent  and  com- 
prehensive discussion  of  them  is  to  be  found  in  the  report  on  "Health  Edu- 
cation" of  the  Joint  Committee  on  Health  Problems  of  the  National  Edu- 
cation Association  and  American  Medical  Association,  "A  Program  for 
Public  Schools  and  Teacher  Training  Institutions,"  published  in  June, 
1924,  and  available  from  the  National  Education  Association  headquarters 
at  Washington. 

B.  General  Summary  of  Trend  of  Research  Findings  in  Physical  Education 

The  research  studies  in  physical  education  point  out  several  definite  fac- 
tors which  should  be  carefully  considered  in  a  program  of  curriculum  con- 
struction.   They  are  as  follows: 

a.  A  study  of  age,  grade,  weight,  and  height  is  suggested  as  a  satisfac- 
tory means  of  classifying  students  for  physical  education  activities. 

b.  The  use  of  a  four-point  classification  (age,  grade,  height,  and  weight) 
has  proven  a  satisfactory  means  of  grouping  high  school  boys  for  inter- 
scholastic  athletics. 

c.  The  relationship  of  physical  efficiency  may  be  a  potent  factor  in  ad- 
justing pupils  to  the  correct  grade  placement. 

d.  One  study  points  out  that  a  child's  physical  ability  and  development 
should  be  considered  in  classifying  him  as  to  acceleration  or  retardation  in 
school  progress. 

e.  An  experiment  shows  that  play  is  more  effective  than  formal  exercise 
as  a  means  of  reaching  the  objectives  laid  down  in  a  physical  education 
program. 

f .  Group  competition  is  desirable  whenever  possible  for  two  chief  reasons : 

1.  It  stimulates  pupils  to   increase   their  individual    achievement. 

2.  It  is  socially  effective  in  that  the  individual  is  urged  to  greater  self  realiza- 
tion in  keeping  with  the  best  group  interests. 

g.  Little  difference  exists  between  height  and  weight  between  the  sexes 
in  the  last  four  years  of  elementary  school. 

h.  The  amount  of  kinetic  energy  used  in  running,  jumping,  etc.  has  been 
calculated.  From  data  thus  obtained  it  has  been  found  that  only  270 
individuals  out  of  one  million  tested,  fell  out  of  the  distribution  curve. 

i.  A  plan  has  been  evaluated  which  is  physiologically  sound  whereby 
basketball  tournaments  may  be  conducted,  limiting  the  physical  strain  of 
the  contesting  athletes.  , 


The  Third  Yearbook  319 


j.  A  plan  has  been  evolved  for  grouping  physically  defective  high  school 
pupils  into  similar  groups  for  corrective  work. 

k.  Underweight  causes  a  lessening  of  motor  efficiency,  equivalent  to  from 
one  half  to  one  year  of  retardation. 

1.  A  study  of  mentally  retarded  pupils  yielded  the  following  interesting 
results  : 

1.  Mentally  retarded  boys  are  shorter  in  height  and  lighter  in  weight  than 
normal  boys.  The  girls  are  shorter  in  all  ages  and  lighter  up  to  the  age  of  12, 
but  are  about  the  same  weight  as  normal  girls  from  13  to  15  years. 

2.  Mentally  retarded  boys  jump  and  throw  farther  and  run  faster  than  mentally 
retarded  girls. 

3.  Mentally  retarded  boys  are  from  l1/^  to  3  years  lower  in  average  perform- 
ance than  normal  boys  in  the  four  events  (standing  broad  jump,  ball  throw  over- 
head, 50  yard  dash  and  chinning  for  boys  and  knee  raising  for  girls).  Mentally 
retarded  girls  are  from  2  to  7  years  lower  than  normal  girls. 


CHAPTER  XI 
HOME  ECONOMICS 

Henrietta  W.  Calvin,  Director,  Division  of  Home  Economics,  Board 
of  Public  Education,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  Chairman 

Major  Problems  in  the  Formation  of  the  Curriculum  in  Home  Economics 

What  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the  knowledge  of  textile  fabrics; 
color  harmonies;  hygiene  of  clothing;  relation  of  foods  to  health;  and  of 
the  effect  of  cleanliness  of  person,  dwelling,  and  surroundings  upon  health  ? 

To  what  extent  should  manipulative  skill  be  stressed  ? 

For  what  coordination  with  English,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  civics, 
should  the  home  economics  curriculum  provide  ? 

Are  results  most  satisfactory  when  the  home  economics  curriculum  con- 
sists of  short  intensive  units? 

Should  projects  selected  in  home  economics  be  of  a  type  that  can  be  com- 
pleted before  the  interest  of  the  pupil  wanes? 

Since  home  economics  should  contribute  to  home  helpfulness  and  the 
formation  of  health  habits,  to  what  extent  should  the  curriculum  be  based 
upon  home  experiences? 

To  what  extent  should  curriculum  modifications  be  encouraged  in  order 
that  the  school  activities  in  home  economics  may  be  varied  to  meet  the 
different  social  and  economic  needs  in  the  different  sections  of  the  larger 
cities  ? 

To  what  extent  should  home  projects  be  included  in  the  curriculum? 

To  what  extent  should  the  home  economics  curriculum  be  modified  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  overaged  or  subnormal  girl  ? 

What  time  allotment  is  essential  to  adequate  instruction  in  home  eco- 
nomics, recognizing  as  we  must,  that  the  curriculum  is  affected  by  the 
time  set  aside  for  such  instruction? 

RESEARCH  STUDIES  IN  HOME  ECONOMICS  EDUCATION 
IN  GRADES  1  TO  6 

STUDY  NO.  r.  Trilling,  Mabel  Barbara,  Miller,  Ethelwyn,  and 
others.  Home  economics  in  American  schools.  Supplementary  Educational 
Monographs.    Department  of  Education,  Univ.  of  Chicago,  1920.    pp.  122. 

Purpose.  To  report  the  findings  of  a  survey  of  the  status  of  home 
economics  in  public  schools  of  the  United  States,  as  a  basis  for  helping  to 
determine  the  curriculum  in  elementary  and  secondary  schools. 

Method.  Question  blanks  were  sent  to  300  cities  including  two  in  every 
state,  to  discover  subjects  taught  in  home  economics  and  the  books  influenc- 
ing the  curriculum.  An  analysis  was  made  of  these  courses  of  study  and 
of  the  text  and  reference  books  found  to  be  most  commonly  used.  A  study 
was  also  made  of  the  literature  dealing  with  home  economics  in  search  of 
objectives.     In  addition  the  report  gives  the  preliminary  organization  of 

[320] 


The  Third  Yearbook  321 

tests  in  measuring  skill  in  machine  sewing  and  content  and  reasoning  tests 
in  textiles  and  clothing. 

Findings.  A.  There  is  a  dearth  of  adequate  elementary  school  material 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  certain  books  written  for  the  high  school  and 
college  are  being  used  as  texts  and  reference  books  in  the  grades.  Only  15 
per  cent  of  the  elementary  schools  are  using  texts;  21  per  cent  reference 
books.  The  textbooks  used  are  stressing  the  acquisition  of  information  and 
skill  with  little  consideration  given  to  the  development  of  power  and  judg- 
ment. 

B.  Emphasis  in  the  elementary  school  is  placed  on  the  technical  processes 
involved  in  food  preparation  and  clothing  construction  with  insufficient  con- 
sideration given  to  other  important  phases  of  home  economic  work. 

C.  There  is  little  evidence  of  a  continuous  course  of  study  in  the  grades 
suited  to  the  various  stages  of  growth  of  children.  This  is  shown  (a)  by  the 
general  practice  of  introducing  into  the  schools  in  the  early  grades  the  study 
of  clothing  construction,  deferring  the  work  in  food  for  two  or  more  years, 
(b)  by  the  fact  that  courses  are  not  arranged  on  the  basis  of  increasing 
difficulty  to  the  learner,  (c)  by  the  custom  of  introducing  hand  sewing 
into  the  grades  previous  to  machine  sewing.  In  14  per  cent  of  the  schools 
the  teaching  of  machine  sewing  is  not  mentioned. 

D.  The  preliminary  use  of  educational  tests  shows  their  value  in  helping 
to  establish  minimal  essentials  and  in  developing  a  critical  attitude  toward 
the  curriculum.  It  seems  safe  to  predict  that  the  use  of  the  scale  for  measur- 
ing machine  sewing  will  lead  to  the  setting  of  definite  standards  of  attain- 
ment, will  give  the  inexperienced  teacher  a  definite  guide  and  will  be  a 
means  of  diagnosing  difficulties  in  machine  sewing. 

STUDY  NO.  2.  Trilling,  Mabel  Barbara.  A  study  of  objectives  in 
the  teaching  of  textiles.  Thesis  for  Master's  degree.  Unpublished,  1923, 
90  pp.    University  of  Chicago  Library. 

Purpose.  The  purpose  of  this  study  is  to  offer  a  contribution  toward 
helping  to  determine  the  important  topics  that  should  be  included  in  tex- 
tile courses  in  typical  public  schools. 

Method.  The  material  has  been  obtained  from  two  sources:  (a)  Facts 
have  been  collected  from  consumers  regarding  the  information  they  desire 
when  purchasing  textiles.  The  method  used  was  to  observe  consumers 
when  shopping  and  to  record  the  questions  they  ask  of  salespersons  regard- 
ing the  qualities  and  facts  they  desire  to  know  about  the  materials  pur- 
chased, (b)  Material  has  been  obtained  from  an  analysis  of  twelve  of 
the  textile  books  most  commonly  used  in  the  public  schools;  this  study 
is  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  problems  possessing  sufficient  value  to 
be  included  in  the  school  curriculum  are  to  be  found  in  textbooks. 

Findings.  1.  The  study  shows  that  there  is  sufficient  social  need  for 
textile  information  to  warrant  more  time  being  devoted  to  this  phase  of 
home  economics  than  is  at  present  being  given  in  the  majority  of  elementary 
and  secondary  schools. 


322  Department  of  Superintendence 


2.  The  qualities  demanded  in  fabrics  by  consumers  when  in  agreement 
with  the  facts  emphasized  by  experts  may  profitably  be  used  to  formulate 
minimal  essentials  for  a  beginning  course  in  textiles  in  the  pubic  schools. 
Such  material  is: 

(1)  Knowledge  of  fibers;  kinds  and  properties 

(2)  A  study  of  yarns 

(3)  Simple  processes  of  cloth  construction,  such  as  spinning  and  weaving 

(4)  Finishing  processes 

(5)  Imitations  and  substitutions 

(6)  Simple  methods  of  dyeing 

(7)  Simple  physical  and  chemical  tests 

(8)  Study  of  fabrics  and  how  to  use  them 

(9)  Hygienic  aspects  of  clothing 

3.  Those  topics  which  recent  books  are  showing  a  tendency  to  eliminate, 
and  which  have  received  no  emphasis  by  consumers  should  be  given  little 
emphasis  in  school  courses.     Such  material  is: 

(1)  Historical  data 

(2)  Detailed   technical   study   of   spinning,   weaving,    and   other   processes   of 
construction 

(3)  Too  detailed  study  of  certain  finishing  processes,  such   as  bleaching   and 
dyeing 

(4)  Emphasis  on  botanical  aspects  of  fibers 

4.  There  is  a  body  of  material  included  under  the  topic  economics  of 
clothing  which  has  received  almost  no  consideration  from  consumers  of 
textiles  but  which  has  been  given  certain  emphasis  in  textbooks.  It  is 
suggested  that  a  study  of  the  material  be  continued  in  textile  classes,  the 
emphasis  given  to  this  material  to  be  determined  through  further  studies. 
Certain  typical  problems  are :  Clothing  budgets,  pure  fabric  laws,  standard- 
ization of  styles  in  fabrics  and  garments,  responsibility  of  consumers  for 
certain  labor  conditions,  and  ethics  of  shopping. 

5.  It  is  apparent  that  important  contributions  for  establishing  textile  ob- 
jectives are  obtained  from  each  of  these  studies ;  neither  can  be  used  as  the 
sole  source  of  material,  but  each  should  be  supplemented  by  material  of  the 
other. 

STUDY  NO.  3.  Williams,  Florence.  Standards  of  attainments  for 
ability  in  machine  sewing.  Master's  thesis.'  University  of  Chicago  Li- 
brary, Chicago,  111.,  1922. 

Purpose.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  investigation  (1)  to  further  in  a 
small  degree  the  scientific  measurement  of  achievement  in  home  economics 
education;  (2)  to  set  up  standards  of  attainment  in  machine  sewing  for 
different  grades  and  ages. 

Method.  A  large  number  of  samples  of  machine-made  hems  and 
French  seams,  3117  in  all,  averaging  300  to  the  grade,  were  collected  from 
different  school  systems  in  11  different  cities  under  as  carefully  controlled 
conditions  as  possible.     The  samples  were  scored  on  the  Knapp  and  Wil- 


The  Third  Yearbook  323 


liams  scale.  This  is  a  scale  for  measuring  ability  in  machine  sewing.  It 
consists  of  photographic  reproductions  of  samples  of  machine-made  hems 
and  French  seams.  The  scale  is  analytic  in  character.  Five  factors  which 
contribute  to  a  well  made  French  seam  or  hem  are  judged  separately,  and 
the  scale  shows  three  different  qualities  for  each  factor.  A  reproduction  of 
the  scale  can  be  found  in  the  University  of  Chicago  Educational  Mono- 
graph Home  Economics  in  American  Schools,  Mabel  Trilling  and  others. 
Each  sample  was  judged  separately  for  each  of  the  five  factors.  Next  the 
average  score  for  each  sample  was  found.  The  samples  were  scored  for 
standards  of  attainment  for  both  different  grades  and  different  ages. 

Findings.  1.  Only  a  small  number  of  samples  were  obtained  from  the 
fifth  grade.  The  average  score  for  both  the  French  seam  and  the  hem  was 
low.  Because  of  the  small  number  scored  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
whether  the  score  is  significant  or  not.  If  such  a  low  score  had  been  ob- 
tained from  a  large  number  of  samples  it  would  indicate  that  fifth-grade 
children  could  not  be  expected  to  attain  much  skill  in  machine  sewing. 

2.  There  is  a  steady  rate  of  increase  in  ability  shown  in  the  average 
scores  for  the  different  grades. 

3.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  increase  in  ability  for  the  different 
ages  is  not  so  steady  as  in  the  standard  of  attainment  for  the  different 
grades.  The  range  of  scores  in  the  different  grades  is  almost  the  same  for 
every  grade. 

STUDY  NO.  4.  Winchell,  Florence  E.  How  can  household  arts 
teaching  be  made  more  effective?  Lincoln  School  of  Teachers  Colleges, 
New  York  City,  1923.    24  p. 

"Results  of  a  study  made  through  personal  interviews  with  nineteen 
women  who  formerly  taught  household  arts  in  elementary  and  secondary 
schools  and  are  now  married  and  in  their  own  homes." 

Fourteen  definite  questions  were  asked,  such  as :  Does  it  still  seem  to 
you  that  there  is  a  logical  sequence  which  you  would  always  follow  in 
presenting  household  arts  subjects?  What  specific  education  for  boys  do 
you  recommend  that  would  make  their  attitude  in  the  home  better,  and 
woman's  work  in  the  home  easier?  Where  have  you  felt  weaknesses  in 
your  training,  etc.  ?    The  answers  were  tabulated  descriptively. 

The  most  important  conclusion  was  that  household  arts  teachers  be 
urged  to  "give  the  weight  of  their  influence  to  the  establishment  of  ideals 
of  simple  and  systematic  housekeeping  that  may  free  the  homemaker  for 
the  educational  and  recreational  phases  of  her  family  life." 

Other  summaries  were :  ( 1 )  Need  of  early  home  training  of  both  boys 
and  girb;  (2)  food  interest  the  most  vital  to  family;  (3)  insufficient  prep- 
aration among  homemakers  for  child  care;  (4)  interest,  a  child  factor  in 
elementary  school  home  economics  subject  matter;  and  (5)  accuracy  ad- 
vantageous, but  it  is  possible  for  home  economics  teachers  to  overemphasize 
precision  in  processes. 


324  Department  of  Superintendence 

STUDY  NO.  5.  Harap,  Henry.  The  education  of  the  consumer:  a 
study  in  curriculum  material.     Macmillan,   1924.     360  pp. 

"A  study  in  curriculum  material;  analysis  for  educational  guidance  of 
the  elements  of  an  effective  relation  between  man  and  his  economic  en- 
vironment as  it  expresses  itself  in  the  consumption  of  food,  shelter,  fuel, 
and  clothing." 

This  study  compares  the  actual  present  economic  habits  of  our  nation 
with  approved  standards  of  consumption  in  the  light  of  reliable  standards  of 
living. 

The  studies  used  in  collecting  materials  were  direct  surveys  of  habits  of 
people,  statistical  reports,  and  data  obtained  from  many  sources.  The  con- 
clusions reached  were  essentially  those  of  objectives  concerned  with  the 
acquisition  of  information,  development  of  habits,  and  development  of  atti- 
tudes which  give  approval  or  disapproval  of  economic  conditions  and  pro- 
posals.    The  question  is  raised,  Can  economic  habits  be  modified? 

The  definite  objectives  set  up  for  the  social  significance  of  food,  cloth- 
ing, shelter,  etc.,  are  of  distinct  value  to  all  home  economics  teachers.  The 
study  as  a  whole  suggests  the  need  for  home  economics  materials  to  be  in 
line  with  actual  conditions  of  life  as  they  are  found  in  American  homes 
today.    See  review  of  this  study  on  page  269  and  on  page  334. 

STUDY  NO.  6.  Fulton,  Lucy.  Home  economics  materials  in  the  ele- 
mentary curriculum.  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univ.,  Office  of  Re- 
search in  Household  Arts  Education,   1924. 

The  problem  as  stated  was  what  are  the  trends  or  evolutionary  tenden- 
cies in  regard  to  home  economics  materials  offered  in  the  elementary  cur- 
riculum (grades  one  to  six)  ?  It  was  assumed  the  evolutionary  tendencies 
could  be  seen  in  field  practices  shown  in  printed  courses  of  study,  in  re- 
ported practices,  and  by  theories  as  expressed  in  the  best  thinking. 

The  data  were  collected  from  courses  of  study  of  one  hundred  cities  of 
varying  types,  superintendents'  reports,  and  special  school  programs.  The 
validity  of  this  is  being  checked  by  previous  studies  and  the  theories  of 
general  educators,  specialists,  and  reviews  of  selected  judges. 

The  conclusions  reached  are  of  value  in  three  ways :  ( 1 )  They  are  sug- 
gestive to  general  grade  teachers;  (2)  they  serve  as  basic  materials  for 
grade  home  economics  tests;  and  (3)  they  afford  a  clarification  of  home 
ecnomics'  share  in  the  elementary  curriculum. 

Tabulated  data  of  this  study  were  not  quite  complete  at  the  time  this  re- 
port was  made  but  will  be  available  in  the  near  future. 

STUDY  NO.  7.  Roman,  Mata.  A  study  to  determine  the  extent  to 
ivhich  the  food  work  with  fifth  grade  children  functions  in  their  daily 
living.    Elementary  School,  University  of  Chicago.     In  progress. 

Both  boys  and  girls  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  of  the  University  of 
Chicago  elementary  school  have  work  in  foods.  The  real  purpose  of  the 
work  is  to  teach  children  to  select  their  own  food  wisely.     A  study  has 


The  Third  Yearbook  325 

been  undertaken  to  determine  what  the  children  need  to  be  taught  and  to 
what  extent  the  children's  practices  are  influenced  by  the  food  lessons. 

Method.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  the  teacher  has  a  private  con- 
ference with  each  child  during  which  they  make  a  record  of  the  child's 
likes,  dislikes,  prejudices,  and  all  available  facts  about  his  present  diet. 
This  is  supplemented  by  information  gained  from  the  mothers  at  a  group 
meeting  at  which  the  purposes  and  methods  are  explained.  The  course  is 
planned  to  meet  the  needs  as  found.  After  the  end  of  the  course  a  second 
record  will  be  taken  and  findings  compared  with  the  first.  In  order 
to  check  the  permanency  of  results,  records  will  again  be  obtained  at  the 
end  of  the  year  for  comparison. 

It  is  planned  to  continue  this  study  with  similar  groups  for  several 
years  and  to  adapt  subject  matter  and  methods  to  suit  the  needs  as  re- 
vealed by  the  study. 

STUDY  NO.  8.  Robertson,  Annie  L.  Basic  study  of  home  economics 
educational  problems.  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univ.,  Office  of  Re- 
search in  Household  Arts  Education  (typewritten  form),  1924. 

An  attempt  to  discover  the  "trend  of  the  times"  and  to  secure  a  working 
organization  on  which  to  base  later  research — the  major  purpose  was  to 
bring  together  a  program  of  cooperative  thinking  and  to  take  cognizance  of 
the  field  condition.  If  home  economics  educational  research  is  to  assist 
course-of-study  makers  and  curriculum  thinkers,  then  studies  made  should 
show  up  facts  and  figures  relative  to  the  problems  or  in  other  terms,  short- 
ages in  the  field. 

An  objective  study  was  made  through  interviews  and  reviews  of  pub- 
lished writings.  The  definite  question  put  in  the  interviews  or  considered 
in  the  reading  was  "What  do  you  consider  some  of  the  outstanding  or 
most  insistent  problems  in  public  school  home  economics?"  Not  more  than 
five  problems  were  recorded  from  one  person.  The  question  was  asked  of 
selected  personnel  from  the  following  groups :  ( 1 )  General  educators  and 
administrators,  (2)  home  economics  teachers  and  supervisors,  (3)  mothers 
and  homemakers,  (4)  social  thinking  laymen,  and  (5)  social  workers. 

Three  hundred  and  fifty  problem  assertions  were  obtained,  analyzed, 
filed,  and  charted.  Problems  of  curriculum  materials,  child  learnings,  and 
instruction  were  most  frequent.  The  chart  "showed-up"  the  field  with  its 
present  ills  needing  diagnostic  treatment.  The  study  was  not  considered 
finished.  It  should  be  carried  on  to  approximately  one  thousand  statements 
so  that  the  frequency  study  could  be  of  more  value. 

Home  economics  in  the  elementary  school:  A  professional  group  study. 

For  more  than  a  year  the  household  arts  group  of  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University,  have  been  meeting,  discussing  home  economics  in  the 
various  school  levels.  The  conclusions  of  this  group  study  have  been  put 
into  form  for  the  elementary  school  as  they  relate  to    (1)    purposes,    (2) 


326  Department  of  Superintendence 

organization  of  work,   (3)  methods  of  study,  (4)   outcomes,   (5)   relation- 
ships to  other  subjects,  as  follows: 

1.  Purposes  of  the  work  stated  with  reference  to  several  supplementary 
bases : 

A.  Purposes  stated  in  terms  of  social  or  practical  objectives 

a.  The  consumer  purposes 

(1)  Health-usage  as  affected  by  habits  and  by  meaningful  information. 

(2)  Economic  selection  with  reference  to  values  in  terms  of  both  need 
and  cost. 

(3)  Art,  or  aesthetic  selection  with  reference  to  qualities  of  beauty. 

b.  The  citizenship  purposes 

(1)  Social  control  regulations  with  reference  to  conditions  and  practices 
which  can  be  had  only  by  cooperation — problems  of  health,  exploita- 
tion, economy,  and  art. 

(2)  Social  aspects  of  personal  and  family  problems  relative  to  food,  cloth- 
ing, and  shelter. 

c.  The    occupational  participating  purposes — home-participation  by  helping  with : 

(1)  Food — preparation  and  service,  and  care  of  utensils   and  implements 

(2)  Clothing — care,  laundering,  and  simple  repair. 

(3)  Housekeeping — bed-making,  care  of  rooms,  arrangement  and  care  of 
furnishings,  care  of  floors,  walls,  doors  and  windows. 

(4)  Home  upkeep — simple  repairs  of  woodwork,  furniture,  doors,  locks, 
windows,  screens,  curtain  and  shade  rods  and  rollers,  picture  frames, 
heating  plant,  plumbing,  lighting  systems  and  labor-saving  devices 
and  implements,  both  indoors  and  outdoors. 

(5)  Child  care — simple  kinds  of  care  relative  to  the  health  and  happiness 
of  young  children. 

(6)  Recreation — social  life  of  the  home  and  entertainment  of  guests. 

B.  Purposes  stated  in  terms  of  psychological  objectives 

a.  The  formation  of  good  habits  relative  to  the  use  of  food  and  clothing  and 
to  participation  in  home  life  generally. 

b.  The  development  of  intelligence  and  insight  relative  to  the  production  and 
usage  of  food,  clothing  and  shelter  materials,  and  of  the  simpler  social  oi 
citizenship  problems  connected  with  them. 

c.  The  development  of  critical  judgment  for  the  selection  of  food,  clothing  and 

shelter  materials  with  reference  to  standards  of  value  in  health,  economy, 
and  art. 

d.  The  development  of  an  appreciation  of,  or  a  liking  for,  that  which  is 
aesthetically  of  fine  quality. 

e.  The  development  of  that  general  dexterity  in  the  manipulation  of  materials, 

tools,   and  machines  connected   with  the  upkeep   of  the  home  which  should 
be  common  to  all  boys  and  girls  of  twelve  years  of  age. 

2.  Organization  of  the  zvork.  The  work  should  be  distributed  through- 
out the  elementary  school  from  the  first  grade  on  the  basis  of  capacity  in 
relationship  to  interests  and  needs.  Some  work  in  each  year  for  each  aspect 
of  the  whole  subject  of  home  life  will  contribute  to  the  development  of 
habits,  intelligence,  appreciations,  and  interests. 

3.  Methods  of  study.  Investigative  activities,  frequently  initiated  by 
manipulative  or  constructive  work,  and  very  generally  carried  forward  by 


The  Third  Yearbook  327 

its  use,  constitute  the  more  significant  elements  of  method.  Excursions, 
readings,  home  participation  and  exhibits  should  all  be  used.  The  hand 
work  is  a  means  to  clarify  ideas,  to  aid  in  experiments,  and  to  express  orig- 
inal ideas  of  design  or  planning  in  concrete  form.  Hand  work  has  its  maxi- 
mum value  for  growth  in  both  practical  efficiency  and  character  when  it  is 
employed  in  achieving  some  worth-while  purpose. 

4.  Outcomes.  Outcomes  for  the  elementary  school  period  for  each  re- 
spective grade  should  be  stated  in  specific  detail  as  a  means  of  evaluating 
the  work.    This  is  a  problem  not  yet  adequately  solved. 

5.  Relationships  to  other  subjects.  As  the  life  problems  included  in  other 
subjects  largely  grow  out  of  the  practical  arts  needs,  the  work  in  household 
arts  will  incorporate  many  elements  from  both  biological  and  physical 
science,  from  mathematics,  from  design,  from  industrial  and  commercial 
geography,  and  from  history.  Many  of  the  elements  of  these  subjects  find 
their  most  common  applications  and  uses  in  the  problems  of  household  arts. 

STUDY  NO.  9.  Rose,  Mary  Swartz.  Food  lessons  for  nutrition 
classes.  Teachers  College  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  University, 
New  York  City,  1921.    26  p. 

A  series  of  food  lessons  for  children  from  eight  to  ten  years  old.  These 
are  the  results  of  experiments  conducted  by  students  of  nutrition  at  Teach- 
ers College  in  a  nutrition  centre  and  Public  School  No.  43. 

The  purpose  was  to  determine  the  most  suitable  subject-matter  and  the 
best  way  of  presenting  it.  The  material  was  especially  serviceable  to  the 
nutrition  teacher. 

Summary  of  Findings 

That  home  economics  is  usually  limited  to  the  upper  two  grades — i.  e., 
the  fifth  and  sixth  grades. 

That  home  economics  instruction  in  elementary  schools  is  often  narrowed 
down  to  include  sewing  only,  whereas  all  phases  of  home  life  should  be  rep- 
resented to  the  extent  justified  by  the  intelligence,  interests,  and  abilities  of 
the  child  of  a  given  age  or  grade. 

That  hand-work  is  over-emphasized  and  projects  selected  are  not  ar- 
ranged so  as  to  insure  progressive  knowledge  and  skill. 

That  ability  in  home  economics  work  progresses  with  grade  rather  than 
with  advance  in  age. 

That  home  economics  instruction  should  be  in  line  with  actual  condi- 
tions of  life  as  they  are  found  in  American  homes  today. 

There  have  been  few  research  studies  in  home  economics  in  elementary 
schools.  In  part  this  is  the  result  of  a  lack  of  interest  in  elementary  school 
problems  by  those  in  colleges  and  universities  directing  research  projects. 
So  great  has  been  the  demand  for  high  school  home  economics  teachers  and 
so  small  has  been  the  supply  of  well-trained  women  that  the  higher  insti- 
tutions of  learning  have  interested  themselves  in  high  school  problems  only. 


328  Department  of  Superintendence 

There  are  relatively  few  textbooks  in  home  economics  adapted  to  ele- 
mentary school  work. 

Since  home  economics  instruction  must  be  based,  to  some  extent,  on  cli- 
matic, economic,  and  social  conditions  and  since  these  vary  so  greatly  in  the 
different  sections  of  the  United  States,  it  has  been  difficult  for  any  textbook 
writer  to  include  material  universally  adaptable. 


CHAPTER  XII 

INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

F.  G.  Bonser,  Professor  of  Education,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University,  Nenv  York  City,  Chairman 

Major  Problems  in  the  Formation  of  the  Curriculum  in  Industrial  Arts 

How  far  should  a  course  in  industrial  arts  emphasize  the  cultivation  of  ap- 
preciation in  art,  in  motor  skill,  or  both? 

To  what  degree  should  a  project  in  industrial  arts  be  selected  because  of  its 
life  values?     Because  of  its  value  to  develop  skill? 

Shall  a  separate  course  of  study  in  industrial  arts  be  set  up? 

How  far  should  a  course  in  the  common  elements  of  industrial  arts  serve 
for  an  entire  city  rather  than  units  within  a  city. 

To  what  extent  shall  the  varying  and  transient  interests  of  children  dic- 
tate the  content  of  the  industrial  arts  course? 

To  what  extent  should  the  selection  of  subject  matter  in  industrial  arts  be 
determined  by  the  needs  of  the  consumer  in  after  life? 

In  a  school  of  limited  resources  should  the  course  of  study  provide  for  in- 
dustrial arts,  music,  etc.,  as  well  as  the  fundamentals? 

What  responsibility  and  obligations  shall  the  general  supervisor,  such  as  the 
assistant  superintendent,  principal,  or  primary  supervisor,  have  in  the 
organization  of  the  course  of  study  in  industrial  arts,  and  in  determin- 
ing the  content  of  the  course? 

To  what  extent  should  home  conditions  serve  as  one  basis  of  content  in  the 
the  course  of  study  in  industrial  arts? 

Should  the  subject  matter  for  boys  and  girls  be  identical?  If  so,  up  to 
what  time?  Where  should  differentiation  begin  and  what  should  be 
the  nature  of  it? 

What  attention  should  be  given  to  methods  of  teaching  in  the  making  of  a 
course  of  study  in  industrial  arts? 

To  what  extent  should  standards  be  developed  to  test  motor  skill  in  indus- 
trial arts? 

Review  of  Research  Studies  in  Industrial  Arts 

STUDY  NO.  i.  Kent,  Ernest  B.  The  constructive  interests  of  chil- 
dren. New  York,  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
Univ.,  1903.     78  pp. 

This  is  probably  the  first  attempt  to  obtain  a  really  scientific  basis  for 
selecting  constructive  work  for  the  elementary  school.  The  purpose  of  the 
study  was  to  find  the  natural  constructive  interests  of  children  by  ascertain- 
ing what  kinds  of  constructive  projects  they  made  voluntarily  outside  of 
school. 

The  data  were  obtained  by  asking  children  to  write,  on  a  blank  provided, 
answers  to  questions  covering:   Articles  made  voluntarily  outside  of  school 

[329] 


330  Department  of  Superintendence 

during  the  preceding  twelve  months;  for  what  purpose  they  were  made ; 
and  for  whom  they  were  made.  Answers  were  obtained  and  used  from  148 
children,  63  boys  and  85  girls,  of  from  eight  to  fifteen  years  of  age,  in  the 
Horace  Mann  and  Ethical  Culture  Schools  of  New  York  City. 

From  the  study  of  results,  the  objects  reported  were  classified  as  to  ma- 
terials used,  kinds  of  projects  as  to  use,  and  for  whom  made.  Age  and  sex 
differences  were  noted. 

For  the  average  boy,  about  half  of  the  projects  are  those  used  in  play,  and 
about  three-tenths  for  real  use — two-tenths  as  gifts,  and  one-tenth  for  his, 
own  use.  For  the  girls,  dolls  and  toys  relating  to  dolls  are  the  dominant 
motives  for  voluntary  constructive  projects,  with  the  gift  interest  second. 

The  study  includes  also  the  kinds  of  constructive  activities  and  interests 
reported  by  72  talented  engineers  as  they  remembered  their  years  of  boy- 
hood between  eight  and  sixteen.  Comparisons  are  made  with  the  results  ob- 
tained from  the  school  boys.  The  selected  group  of  engineers  show  from 
their  remembered  interests  somewhat  more  constructive  activity  in  me- 
chanical projects  than  the  school  boys. 

In  this  brief  note,  mention  can  not  be  made  of  the  numerous  interesting 
points  and  the  suggestive  questions  raised  by  the  study.  The  number  ot 
children  was  too  small  and  the  limitations  of  environment  too  great  to 
permit  of  generalizations  from  the  investigation.  But  it  is  of  interest  as  a 
pioneer  study,  using  a  method  which,  with  the  refinements  since  developed, 
may  be,  and  is,  profitably  employed  today.  The  author  recognizes  fully 
that  voluntary  interests,  as  expressed  outside  of  school  are  but  one  factor 
in  determining  kinds  of  industrial  arts  work.  They  do  represent  one  factor 
and  an  important  one — how  important,  the  study  does  not  reveal. 

STUDY  NO.  2.  Edgerton,  Alonson  H.  Industrial  arts  in  our  ele- 
mentary schools.     Peoria,  111.,  The  Manual  Arts  Press,  1922.     31  pp. 

This  study  reviews  the  industrial  arts  work  in  141  city  public  school 
systems,  distributed  among  nineteen  states,  in  1920-1921.  The  material 
is  presented  in  three  parts,  treating  respectively  of :  ( 1 )  The  purposes  and 
content  of  industrial  arts;  (2)  the  relationships  of  industrial  arts  to  other 
subjects;  and  (3)  methods  of  presenting  industrial  arts  units  of  study. 

The  Purposes  and  Content  of  Industrial  Arts 

The  chief  reasons  reported  for  offering  industrial  arts  instruction  in  the 
first  six  grades  were  as  follows: 

1.  To  give  a  basis  for  judgment  in  the  selection  and  use  of  industrial  products 
and  service.     (This  reason  was  given  by  51  cities.) 

2.  To  develop   an   appreciation  for  the  economic  and   social  phases  of  industry. 
(This  reason  was  given  by  39  cities.) 

3.  To  offer  sufficient  experience  in  industrial  processes  to  meet  the  pupil's  needs 
and  to  illustrate  the  industry.     (This  reason  was  given  by  32  cities.) 

4.  To  vitalize  geography,  history,   arithmetic,  oral   and  written  expression,   and 
other  subjects  of  the  curriculum.      (This  reason  was  given  by'  19  cities.) 


The  Third  Yearbook  331 

"Although  it  was  discovered  that  a  few  of  these  claims  were  expressions 
of  future  plans  rather  than  the  present  status  and  conduct  of  the  work, 
nevertheless,  only  about  six  per  cent  of  these  public  school  systems  have 
made  practically  no  change  in  the  methods  of  organizing  and  conducting 
their  elementary  industrial  work  during  the  past  few  years  .... 
Over  eighty  per  cent  ....  show  every  evidence  of  having  under- 
gone desirable  reorganization  in  methods  and  procedure." 

The  newer  organization  tends  to  abandon  the  separate  lines  of  work  un- 
der the  terms,  manual  training,  domestic  science,  domestic  art,  and  some 
phases  of  drawing  and  design,  and  to  combine  all  studies  of  processes  and 
values  of  materials  under  the  one  term,  industrial  arts,  for  the  first  six 
grades.  Defining  the  subject  as  "the  study  of  the  changes  made  by  man  in 
materials  to  increase  their  values  for  usage,"  the  emphasis  is  changed  from 
that  of  mere  manipulation  of  materials  and  tools  to  a  study  of  values  for 
the  selection  and  use  of  products,  using  hand  work  as  a  means  and  not  alone 
as  an  end  in  itself.  The  work  centers  about  the  needs  of  everyday  life  in 
selecting  and  using  the  products  of  the  industries  with  reference  to  health, 
ecnomy,  art,  and  social  values,  leaving  training  in  productive  skills  to  vo- 
cational education.  Much  hand-  work  is  used  in  developing  these  values 
and  in  promoting  the  growth  of  general  dexterity.  Comparative  data  for 
the  141  school  systems  offering  instruction  in  each  type  of  work,  indicate 
that  the  greatest  emphasis  is  upon  studies  of:  (1)  Shelter  and  furniture,  (2) 
textiles  and  clothing,  and  (3)  foods  and  allied  activities.  Only  five  and 
eight-tenths  per  cent  of  the  141  cities  give  hand  work,  as  such.  One  de- 
scriptive type  study  of  an  industrial  arts  unit  for  each  of  the  six  grades  is 
given  to  illustrate  the  meaning  of  the  study  as  organized  to  represent  edu- 
cational values. 

The  Relationship  of  Industrial  Arts  to  Other  Subjects 

The  intimate  relationships  of  industrial  arts  to  other  subjects  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  report,  and  illustrations  of  their  profitable  use  are  included. 
There  is  found,  however,  great  variation  in  practice — from  practically  no 
use  of  relationships  to  very  extended  use  of  them.  The  study  includes  a 
report  of  the  methods  used  by  352  grade  and  special  teachers  to  utilize  the 
relationships  of  industrial  arts  work  and  English.  Eleven  descriptive  ac- 
counts of  typically  good  units  of  work  showing  profitable  correlation  are 
given.  The  values  in  saving  time,  simplifying  instruction,  and  enriching 
experience  as  shown  by  these  examples  are  briefly  summarized  and  discussed. 

Methods  of  Presenting  Units  of  Study  for  Industrial  Arts 

The  merits  of  the  project  method  as  against  the  assignment  of  a  fixed 
series  of  exercises  are  summarized  from  the  reports  of  teachers.  Of  the  141 
school  systems,  approximately  91  per  cent  of  the  special  and  grade  teachers 
reporting  favored  the  use  of  the  project  method  in  presenting  industrial 
arts  work.    Perhaps  there  is  no  other  subject  in  which  the  use  of  the  project 


332  Department  of  Superintendence 

method  seems  so  immediately  natural.  Twelve  illustrative  projects  in 
industrial  arts  are  included  from  among  reports  by  teachers. 

About  41  per  cent  of  the  schools  reporting  offer  all  work  in  common  for 
boys  and  girls  through  the  first  six  grades ;  about  29  per  cent  offer  separate 
courses  in  the  sixth  grade ;  and  about  22  per  cent  begin  differentiating  the 
work  for  boys  and  girls  in  the  fifth  grade.  Only  seven  per  cent  make  any 
differentiation  for  boys  and  girls  below  the  fifth  grade. 

In  a  brief  summary,  it  is  stated  that,  "Over  two-thirds  of  the  special 
teachers  and  supervisors  questioned  agree  with  a  large  number  of  classroom 
teachers  that,  in  general,  the  attendant  skill  and  the  related  information 
acquired  through  the  elementary  school  period  are  to  be  justified  mainly  by 
resulting  growth  in  thinking  power  and  industrial  intelligence."  They  are 
convinced  that  the  work  "will  help  pupils  to  establish  those  habits  and  atti- 
tudes that  contribute  most  to  their  daily  conduct  as  intelligent  consumers 
and  citizens." 

The  report  is  compactly  organized,  and,  with  its  29  illustrative  units  of 
industrial  arts  work  reported  from  the  practice  of  teachers  in  various 
grades,  it  is  suggestive  to  both  curriculum  makers  and  teachers. 

STUDY  NO.  3.  National  Education  Association.  "The  elementary 
school  curriculum,"  Second  Yearbook,  Department  of  Superintendence, 
Washington,  D.  C,  1924,  pp.  139-172. 

Facts  on  the  public  school  curriculum.  Research  Bulletin  of  the  Na- 
tional Education  Association,  Vol.  I,  No.  5,  1924.     pp.  325-336. 

Industrial  Arts  in  Forty-nine  Cities  Compared  with  Seattle 

In  the  Research  Bulletin,  it  is  shown  that  the  total  average  time  allot- 
ment for  the  first  six  grades  for  industrial  arts  in  minutes  per  week  is  214 
for  the  49  cities;  for  Seattle,  258.  The  average  time  allotments  by  grades 
in  the  cities  from  the  49,  offering  industrial  arts  are  as  follows : 

Grades I 

Minutes  per  week__  60 
Number  of  cities 18 

It  is  evident  about  twice  as  many  cities  include  industrial  arts  work  in 
their  fifth  and  sixth  grades  as  in  the  first  and  second. 

Manual  Arts  in  Sixty  Cities 

The  tables  in  the  Research  Bulletin  show  that  38  of  the  60  cities  allot 
definite  time  to  manual  arts.  Averaging  this  on  the  basis  of  the  60  cities, 
it  is  shown  that  126  minutes  per  week  are  given  to  manual  arts.  This  is 
one  and  four-tenths  per  cent  of  the  total  allotted  time  in  minutes  per  week 
for  the  elementary  schools.  The  wide  variation  will  be  apparent  in  the  fact 
that  the  lowest  per  cent  of  time  allotted  to  manual  arts  in  any  city  is  four- 
tenths  of  one  per  cent,  and  that  the  highest  per  cent  is  five  and  five-tenths. 


II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

60 

60 

67 

70 

81 

18 

20 

22 

35 

39 

The  Third  Yearbook  333 


As  only  38  of  the  cities  report  time  allotments,  it  would  appear  that  in  22 
of  the  60  there  is  no  work  in  manual  arts  offered.  However,  differences  in 
terminology  make  inferences  unsafe.     Reference  to  this  is  made  later. 

Distribution  of  Grades  in  Which  Industrial  Arts  is  Taught  in  375  Cities 

Tables  of  grade  distributions  contain  no  work  on  "industrial  arts,"  but 
they  do  include  "sewing,"  "cooking,"  and  "wood  work." 

Sewing.  Of  205  cities  reporting  sewing,  121  offer  work  in  some  of  the 
first  six  grades,  distributed  as  follows: 

In  grades  one   to    six,  2  cities 

In  grades  three  to  five,  1  city 

In  grades  three   to   six,  7  cities 

In  grades  four  to  five,  1  city 

In  grades  four  to  six,  21  cities 

In  grades  five   to   six,  31  cities 

In  grade  six,  58  cities 

Cooking.  Of  218  cities  reporting  cooking,  62  offer  work  in  some  of  the 
first  six  grades,  distributed  as  follows: 

In  grades  three  to  six,       2  cities 
In  grades  four  to  six,         1  city 

In  grades  five  to  six,  19  cities 

In  grade  six,  1-0  cities 

Wood  Work.  Of  231  cities  reporting  wood  work,  136  offer  work  in 
some  of  the  first  six  grades,  distributed  as  follows: 

In  grades  three  to  four,  1  city 

In  grades  three  to  six,  1  city 

In  grades  four  to  six,  11  cities 

In  grades  five   to   six,  45  cities 

In  grade  six,  78  cities 

Since  "drawing"  is  a  term  known  to  cover  all  work  with  materials  in  the 
lower  grades  in  some  cities,  and  since  the  number  reporting  drawing  is  so 
large  for  all  grades,  the  distribution  of  grades  in  which  drawing  is  taught  is 
included. 

Drawing.  Of  312  cities  reporting  drawing,  309  offer  work  in  some  of 
the  six  grades,  distributed  as  follows : 

In  grades  one  to  four,  1  city 

In  grades  one  to  five,  3  cities 

In  grades  one    to    six,  293  cities 

In  grades  two  to   six,  10  cities 

In  grades  three  to  six,  2  cities 

In  these  studies,  the  most  striking  thing  is  the  lack  of  apparent  standards 
of  time  allotment  or  grade  placement.  Inference  is  almost  forced  upon  one 
that  variability  in  content  is  as  great  as  in  time  allotment  and  gradation. 
The  very  terminology  is  so  confusing  that  little  can  be  derived  from  the 
reports  relating  to  industrial  arts  other  than  a  sense  of  need  for  bringing 


334  Department  of  Superintendence 

order  out  of  the  chaos.  In  the  study  of  Seattle  and  the  49  other  cities,  the 
term  "industrial  arts"  is  used  and  "drawing"  is  given  a  separate  place;  in 
the  study  of  the  60  cities,  "manual  arts"  is  used  and  "art  education"  re- 
ceives separate  treatment;  and  in  the  grade  distribution  study  of  375  cities 
we  have  neither  "industrial  arts"  or  "manual  arts,"  but  "sewing,"  "cook- 
ing," "wood  work,"  and  "drawing."  Other  terms  not  included  in  these  re- 
ports for  work  about  the  same  as  that  indicated  by  the  terms  in  these  re- 
ports are  "hand  work,"  "drawing  and  design,"  "fine  arts,"  "applied  arts" 
and  some  others  used  by  some  city  school  systems.  That  there  is  overlap- 
ping or  duplication  of  work  under  these  several  terms  cannot  be  known 
from  the  data  presented,  but  that  there  is  great  variability  is  evident  from 
an  examination  of  the  details  of  courses  of  study. 

In  all  the  studies,  comparisons  of  time  allotments  and  grade  placements 
of  the  art  subjects,  by  whatever  name  indicated,  and  the  three  R's  offer 
suggestions  for  thought  about  educational  content  and  values,  time  expendi- 
tures, results  obtained,  and  results  possible. 

In  addition  to  the  really  secondary  questions  of  time  allotment  and  grade 
placement,  the  studies  suggest  strongly  the  need  for  the  education  of  cur- 
riculum makers  and  teachers  in  the  fundamental  character  of  the  indus- 
trial arts  field  as  developed  in  its  most  highly  educative  form  in  recent  years. 
The  possibilities  of  integration  of  vitally  related  parts  of  the  curriculum, 
hitherto  formally  separated,  should  be  scientifically  studied  to  find  whether 
it  may  not  result  in  great  economy  of  both  time  and  effort.  These  studies 
are  very  stimulating  in  revealing  the  need  for  bringing  order  out  of  the 

chaos  that  exists  relative  to  the  industrial  arts. 

« 

STUDY  NO.  4.  Harap,  Henry.  Education  of  the  consumer:  A  study 
in  curriculum  material.    New  York,  Macmillan,  1924.     360  p. 

This  study  is  an  attempt  to  ascertain  the  objectives  of  American  economic 
life  with  special  reference  to  the  consumption  of  food,  shelter,  fuel,  and 
clothing.  The  major  portion  consists  of  evidence  of  the  present  economic 
habits  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  and  an  evaluation  of  these  habits 
in  the  light  of  reliable  standards  of  living. 

The  study  "is  partial  to  no  special  theory  of  education."  It  is  an  endeavor 
to  present  the  facts  as  they  are  in  order  that  curriculum  makers  may  have 
an  unbiased  and  reliable  source  upon  which  to  base  selections  of  materials. 
The  adaptation  to  any  age,  grade,  or  level  of  experience  may  be  made  as  the 
particular  school  may  require. 

Objectives  for  each  particular  field  are  specifically  stated — that  is,  what 
one  should  know  and  be  able  to  do  with  reference  to  food,  shelter,  fuel,  and 
clothing.  The  numerous  government  studies  and  studies  of  special  com- 
missions on  standards  of  living  have  been  carefully  analyzed  and  the  find- 
ings stated.  All  available  scientific  and  statistical  studies  of  production, 
total  consumption,  and  per  capita  consumption  are  summarized  and  com- 
parisons are  made  with  such  standards  of  what  is  desirable  as  we  now  have. 
Costs,  methods  of  purchase,  and  problems  of  preservation  and  conservation 


The  Third  Yearbook  335 


are  included.  Much  material  of  very  high  value  that  has  hitherto  been  in- 
accessible because  of  its  technical  form  of  presentation,  or  because  of  its 
fragmentary  distribution,  has  been  made  easily  available.  An  extended 
bibliography  makes  possible  references  to  the  original  sources  of  data. 

This  book  is  an  especially  useful  reference  for  material  in  those  phases 
of  industrial  arts  for  the  elementary  school  relating  to  food,  shelter,  and 
clothing.     See  review  of  this  study  on  page  324. 

The  Trend  in  Industrial  Arts 

As  is  evidenced  by  the  number  of  studies  included,  little  work  has  yet 
been  done  in  industrial  arts  which  can  qualify  as  "scientific  research." 
Studies  have  been  of  a  practical  type,,  dealing  with  the  formulation  of  pur- 
poses, selecting  materials  to  make  courses  harmonize  with  the  purposes,  and 
organizing  the  material  selected  into  usable  form  for  teachers.  Little  has 
been  attempted  by  way  of  evaluation  through  scientific  testing. 

But  much  has  been  done  in  establishing  a  new  point  of  view  and  in  de- 
veloping a  content  of  materials  and  procedure  for  teachers.  The  recent 
books  and  courses  of  study  in  industrial  arts  show  changes  under  way  which 
statements  of  mere  presence  or  absence  of  the  subject  in  the  curriculum,  or 
of  time  allotments,  could  not  do. 

Where  changes  are  evident,  they  are  in  the  direction  of  including  studies 
that  relate  to  the  use  of  industrial  products  with  reference  to  health,  eco- 
nomic, art,  and  social  values  along  with  manipulative  or  constructive  work 
with  materials.  The  subject  is  tending  more  and  more  to  become  a  study 
of  the  industries  including  hand  work  as  a  means  instead  of  a  course  in  mere 
hand  work  as  such.  It  is  becoming  a  subject  with  a  content  of  thought  and 
experience. 

The  relationships  of  the  work  to  other  subjects  is  also  receiving  greater 
attention,  particularly  the  relationships  to  fine  arts,  to  industrial  and  com- 
mercial geography  and  history,  and  to  arithmetic.  The  increasing  use  of 
the  project  method  is  leading  to  greater  attention  to  the  study  of  the  interests 
and  activities  relating  to  food,  clothing,  shelter,  and  other  material  supplies 
with  which  children  are  in  direct  contact. 

Among  the  courses  of  study  in  industrial  arts  published  within  the  last 
five  years  which  illustrate  well  these  tendencies  are  those  of  Atlanta,  Geor- 
gia; Baltimore,  Maryland ;  Los  Angeles,  California;  Okmulgee,  Oklahoma; 
Passaic,  New  Jersey;  Seattle,  Washington;  and  St.  Cloud,  Minnesota. 
Denver,  Colorado,  also  has  such  a  course  in  preparation.  These  courses  of 
study  are  quite  unlike  the  older  courses  in  "manual  training"  or  "hand 
work"  in  that  they  contain  a  large  body  of  thought  content  relating  to  the 
everyday  needs  of  life  for  the  use  of  industrial  products.  Even  more  hand 
work  than  formerly  is  provided,  but  its  purpose  is  in  relationship  to  definite 
values  which  it  may  contribute. 

Among  the  books  on  industrial  arts  for  the  first  six  grades  which  offer 
work  on  this  basis  and  show  this  trend  are : 


336  Department  of  Superintendence 


Winslow,  Leon.    Elementary  industrial  arts.    New  York,  Macmillan,  1922,  335  p. 

Welling,  Jane  B.,  and  Calkins,  C.  W.  Social  and  industrial  studies  for  the 
elementary  grades.     Phila.,  Lippincott,   1923.     331  p. 

Bonser,  F.  G.,  and  Mossman,  L.  C.  Industrial  arts  for  elementary  schools.  New 
York,  Macmillan,  1923.    491  p. 

Books  giving  accounts  of  work  done. by  the  use  of  the  project  method 
include  much  material  illustrating  this  newer  conception  of  industrial  arts. 
Among  these  are : 

Wells,  Margaret  E.     A  project  curriculum.     Phila.,  Lippincott,  1920. 

Collings,  Elsworth.  An  experiment  with  a  project  curriculum.  New  York,  Mac- 
millan, 1923. 

Burke,  Agnes,  and  others.  A  conduct  curriculum  for  kindergarten  and  first  grade. 
New  York,  Scribner's,  1923. 

Salisbury,  Ethel  J.,  and  others.  An  activity  curriculum  for  the  kindergarten  and 
primary  grades.     San  Francisco,  Harr  Wagner,  1924. 

Books  recently  published  in  geography  and  history  for  the  elementary 
school  include  much  more  material  than  formerly  relating  to  industry. 
Sources,  of  material  for  the  study  of  the  industries  are  becoming  increasingly 
available.  In  fine  arts,  more  attention  than  in  former  years  is  given  to  the 
study  of  products  used  in  daily  life  from  the  standpoint  of  beauty  in  rela- 
tionship to  utility,  making  for  improved  taste  in  selection  and  use.  To 
such  an  extent  is  this  vital  relationship  appreciated  that  in  some  curricula 
fine  and  industrial  arts  are  combined  into  one  study. 

Summary.  Standing  out  most  prominently  then,  two  tendencies  seem 
evident  in  courses  in  industrial  arts :  ( 1 )  An  increasing  emphasis,  upon  con- 
tent relating  to  health,  economic,  and  art  values  in  the  use  of  the  material 
supplies  and  equipment  of  life;  and  (2)  a  recognition  and  use  of  the  parts 
of  industrial  arts  and  other  subjects  closely  related,  making  for  economy  of 
time  and  effort  in  the  teaching  of  all  of  these  related  subjects. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

ART  EDUCATION 

Leon  L.   fVinsloiv,  Director  of  Art,  Department  of  Education 
Baltimore,  Maryland,  Chairman 

THE  IDEAL  elementary  school  course  of  study  is,  perhaps,  one  in 
which  the  entire  curriculum  is  administered  on  a  plan  of  perfect 
articulation  of  the  various  subjects.  In  such  a  course,  the  inspira- 
tion for  handwork  is  adequately  furnished  by  the  other  school  subjects.  The 
mission  of  the  subject  of  art  in  such  a  scheme  would  be  quite  largely  the 
providing  of  illustrative  and  creative  handwork.  There  is  no  race,  no 
political  division,  no  literature,  no  history,  no  science  which  is  not  intimately 
associated  with  the  topics  about  which  such  an  elementary  art  course  is 
organized.  In  the  elementary  grades,  at  least,  art  as  a  subject  is  at  the 
disposal  of  all  other  subjects. 

The  importance  of  the  work  of  the  elementary  school  in  the  scheme  of 
art  education  is  sometimes  underestimated.  If  the  secondary  school  courses 
in  art  are  to  function  as  they  should,  it  is  essential  that  a  foundation  be  laid 
in  the  elementary  schools.  A  subject  designed  to  meet  the  aesthetic  needs 
of  the  elementary  curriculum  has  already  earned  a  place  on  many  school 
programs.  This  subject  attempts  to  combine  drawing  and  construction  and 
to  substantiate  and  reinforce  this  drawing  and  construction  by  a  content 
closely  related  to  the  industries. 

Plans  for  elementary  art  education  consequently  include  elements  from 
the  fields  of  manual  training  and  fine  arts,  so-called,  and  they  aim  to  pro- 
vide content  and  experience  which  shall  be  of  the  maximum  educational 
worth.  The  strength  of  the  best  programs  consists  largely  in  their  adherence 
to  the  belief  that  all  work  in  drawing  and  construction  should  contribute 
to  the  pupil's  personal  and  social  efficiency  at  the  time  when  the  instruction 
is  given. 

Since  the  teaching  of  art  in  the  schools  cannot  cover  effectively  the  whole 
field  of  art  but  must  concentrate  on  problems  of  immediate  value  to  the 
pupils,  it  follows  that  such  teaching  must  function  largely  through  the 
projects  that  the  pupils  undertake.  An  art  project  consists  of  a  lesson  or  a 
complete  series  of  lessons  which  has  taken  into  account  the  necessary  thought 
content,  handwork,  or  appreciation,  or  all  three,  to  the  end  that  the  general 
development  of  the  pupil  is  assured.  Expression  should  be  the  result  of  a 
definite  purpose  calling  for  it.  The  selection  of  problems  and  of  activities 
should  always  be  made  on  the  basis  of  the  general  educational  values  as 
opposed  to  the  restricted  training  values. 

A  proper  use  of  the  project  method  presupposes  training  on  the  teacher's 
part,  and  it  often  includes  such  things  as  problems,  investigations,  assign- 
ments, reference  reading,  lesson  plans,  and  textbooks.  If  other  subjects  are 
worthy  of  systematic  organization  and  of  sustained  intellectual  effort  on 
the  teacher's  and  the  pupil'spart,  the  subject  of  art  is  also  worthy  of  them. 

[337] 


338  Department  of  Superintendence 


The  project  method  of  instruction  has  been  accepted  by  most  of  the  teachers 
of  art  in  elementary  schools  as  the  inevitable  method  to  be  followed.  Art 
as  a  school  subject,  therefore,  includes  not  only  drawing  and  art  apprecia- 
tion but  also  design,  color,  lettering,  and  construction,  as  well  as  a  clearly 
defined  background  of  elementary  science  and  economics  which  makes  the 
work  more  valuable  from  the  general  educational  side. 

Most  of  the  existing  studies  in  educational  measurements  dealing  with 
art  apply  more  specifically  to  drawing,  which  probably  bears  somewhat  the 
same  relationship  to  art  that  penmanship,  or  writing,  bears  to  literature. 
The  term  drawing  is  certainly  not  comprehensive  enough  to  include  today 
all  that  is  included  in  the  field  of  art  education.  The  most  valuable  studies 
investigated  by  the  committee  were  coi.oequently  not  those  concerned  with 
drawing  only  but  those  that  were  concerned  with  constructive  problems  in 
art  education  which  have  been  developed  more  recently  by  a  number  of 
leaders  in  the  field  of  art  teaching. 

There  is  apparently  a  concensus  of  opinion  among  school  administrators 
and  directors  of  art  that  the  purpose  of  art  instruction  in  the  schools  is  the 
development  of  aesthetic  appreciation,  which  implies  taste,  and  the  power 
to  produce  beautiful  things,  which  implies  skill.  It  is  also  generally  agreed 
that  courses  in  art  may  be  included  in  curricula  as  a  part  of  general  educa- 
tion or  as  a  part  of  special  training.  In  general  education,  the  courses  con- 
tribute primarily  to  the  pupil's  all-round  ability  to  conduct  himself  as  a  user 
of  art  products ;  in  special  training,  they  contribute  to  his  ability  to  conduct 
himself  as  a  producer  of  artistic  products.  The  elementary  school  is  con- 
cerned with  appreciation  as  an  aim. 

The  mission  of  the  elementary  school  teacher  of  art,  be  he  a  grade  teacher 
or  a  specialist,  is,  therefore,  an  extremely  important  one,  for  all  people  today 
are  users  of  art.  They  are  called  upon  to  employ  art  principles  in  the  selec- 
tion of  clothing,  in  the  furnishing  of  homes,  in  business,  in  professions,  and 
in  all  walks  of  life.  But  aside  from  the  more  practical  necessities  which 
call  for  instruction  in  art,  there  are  also  the  needs  for  appreciation  and  for 
enjoyment  of  leisure. 

Greater  educational  returns  have  been  realized  where  elementary  school 
art  is  taught  as  a  general  subject  by  the  regular  grade  teacher  and  where 
there  has  been  special  supervision,  constructive,  suggestive,  and  cooperative 
in  character.  Under  such  administration,  art  has  not  failed  to  become  an 
important  and  integral  part  of  the  curriculum.  The  success  of  art  teaching 
in  the  future  will  doubtless  be  dependent  on  the  successful  solving  of  such 
problems  as  those  raised  by  the  subcommittee.  These  are  given  below, 
followed  by  a  more  detailed  presentation  of  the  problems  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  child,  the  subject  matter,  the  other  subjects  in  the  curriculum, 
and  the  teacher  and  supervisor. 

Major  Problems  in  the  Formation  of  the  Curriculum  in  Art 

1.  How  does  the  child's  interest  in  art  manifest  itself?  , 
(Different  periods  to  be  specified.) 


The  Third  Yearbook  339 

2.  In  what  does  the  child's  interest  in  art  consist?  His  enjoyment  of 
pictures? 

3.  What  general  objectives  should  be  realized  through  the  teaching  of 
art  in  the  elementary  school?     Special  objectives? 

4.  To  what  extent  should  art  be  taught  as  a  distinctive  subject? 

5.  What  should  be  a  fair  and  adequate  time  allotment  for  the  subject  of 
art  in  elementary  schools? 

6.  In  developing  a  course  in  art  instruction,  what  proportion  of  time  and 
effort  should  be  given  to  each  of  the  following:  (a)  Representative 
drawing,  (b)  design,  (c)  color  study,  (d)  handicrafts,  (e)  art 
appreciation,  and  (f)   related  content  information? 

7.  What  is  the  purpose  of  handwork  in  the  subject  of  art? 

8.  What  art  problems  should  be  given  in  each  grade? 

9.  Should  the  elementary  school  subject  of  art  include  a  study  of  the 
industrial  arts? 

10.  To  what  extent  should  art  instruction  be  correlated  with  other  school 
subjects? 

Statement  of  Problems  with  Special  Reference  to  Their  Effect  on  Pupil, 
Teacher,  and  Curriculum 

A.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  child : 

1.  What  are  the  child's  needs  that  are  to  be  supplied  by  art  education? 

2.  What  are  his  natural,  inherent  abilities  for  judgment  and  choice.  For 
expression? 

3.  What  are  his  interests?  From  which  phases  of  art  does  he  most  readily  get 
satisfaction?  Which  phases  demand  more  drill?  More  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  child? 

4.  What  is  the  place  of  the  talented  child  in  an  art  course  planned  to  suit  the 
needs  of  the   average  child  ? 

5.  At  what  age  is  a  child  sensitive  to  fine  gradations  of  colors,  in  hue,  and 
intensity  as  well  as  in  value? 

6.  To  what  extent  should  the  curriculum  in  art  provide  for  individual  differences 
in  children? 

B.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  subject  matter: 

1.  What    changes    should    be    made    in    aims    and    objectives    of    art    education? 
What  eliminations  should   be  made  from  the  present  subject-matter? 
What  changes  should  be  made  in  methods  of  teaching? 

2.  What  phases  of  art  should  an  elementary  course  cover?  Which  should  be 
most  stressed  in  relation  to  the  needs  of  children? 

3.  What  standards  of  judgment  (i.e.  choice  and  appreciation)  should  be  expected 
of  sixth  grade  children? 

What  skills  in  art  expression  (i.  e.,  attainments,  technical  skills,  such  as  technic 
in  drawing,  measuring,  and  all  drill  phases)  should  be  expected  of  sixth 
grade  children? 

4.  What  are  the  purposes  and  relative  contributions  of  various  phases  of  art 
instruction  and  their  uses  in  other  subjects,  i.e.,  illustration  and  its  use  in 
other  subjects?  perspective  drawing?  lettering?  color  study?  poster  mak- 
ing? design?  construction  and  handwork,  etc.? 


340  .  Department  of  Superintendence 

C.  From  the  standpoint  of  other  subjects  in  the  curriculum: 

1.  What  connection  should  be  made  between  art  and  other  subjects  in  the 
curriculum,  i.e.,  geography,  history,  reading,  spelling,  arithmetic,  industrial 
arts,  etc.? 

2.  How  can  art  strengthen  the  other  subjects  in  the  curriculum? 

D.  From  the  standpoint  of  teacher  and  supervisor  of  art : 

1.  What  is  lacking  in  the  present  training  of  special  art  teachers  and  supervisors? 

Studies  in  Drawing  and  Art  Appreciation 

The  psychological  studies  that  have  been  made  contribute  little  of  value 
to  the  curriculum  maker  in  respect  to  elementary  school  art.  Several  studies 
do  throw  some  light,  however,  on  drawing  and  art  expression  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  child,  while  all  of  the  more  serious  studies  demonstrate 
the  adaptability  of  art  instruction  to  further  scientific  investigation  which 
should  eventually  bear  results  from  which  the  art  teacher  will  be  able  to 
formulate  guiding  principles  of  practice  for  which  there  is  at  the  present 
time  great  need. 

STUDY  NO.  i.  Lukens,  H.  T.  "A  study  of  children's  drawing." 
The  Pedagogical  Seminary,  October,  1896. 

In  1896,  Lukens  carried  out  a  study  of  children's  drawings  in  which  the 
child's  mental  attitude  toward  pictures  and  drawings  were  carefully  investi- 
gated.    Over  3000  drawings  by  children  were  studied. 

Findings.  Although  no  final  conclusions  were  reached,  it  was  found 
that: 

1.  Very  young  children's  drawings  of  people  are  automatic,  aimless  scribbles. 
By  degrees,  the  aimless  tangle  of  lines  is  reduced  to  a  few  bold  telling  lines.  This 
seems  to  correspond  to  a  clarification  of  the  mental  image  in  the  child's  mind  by  a 
gradually  greater  discrimination  on  his  part  between  the  motor  elements,  resulting 
outwardly  in  mere  scribble,  and  the  strictly  visual  elements,  producing  lines 
definitely  suggestive  of  form. 

2.  Young  children  draw  "out  of  their  own  heads"  and  not  "from  the  object."  This 
is  shown  by  the  test  made  by  having  people  pose  as  models  for  the  children.  No 
matter  how  the  models  sat,  the  child  always  drew  full-face  views.  A  review  of 
drawings  also  showed  that  children  of  ten  draw  sounds  and  other  invisible  things 
such  as  the  mind.  Secondly,  the  little  child  draws  from  his  own  consciousness,  and 
he  puts  his  own  consciousness  into  the  pictures.  A  large  proportion  of  the  human 
figures  drawn  by  children  have  childishi  features. 

3.  Pictures  properly  chosen  will  develop  the  natural  desire  "to  know  what  the 
picture  says"  or,  as  the  children  often  express  it  "to  read  the  picture,"  and 
this  seems  to  be  one  of  the  natural,  wholesome,  and  properly  stimulating  ways  of 
beginning  reading. 

4.  Drawing  can  be  used  to  supplement  language  in  tests  of  the  contents  of  chil- 
dren's minds. 

5.  When  drawing  to  please  themselves,  children  draw  objects  that  they  love, 
and  at  first  mostly  as  a  substitute  for  those  objects  when  absent.  A  tabulation  of 
the  subjects  of  1232  spontaneous  drawings  of  children  under  ten  years  show: 
human  beings,  76  per  cent;  stories,  12  per  cent;  animals,  7  per  cent;  plants,  3  per 
cent;   and  geometrical  figures,  ornament  and  scribble  combined,  2  per  cent.     Chil- 


The  Third  Yearbook  341 


dren's  drawings  show  slight  traces  of  any  interest  in  mere  decoration  before  eleven 
years  of  age. 

6.  Little  children  are  much  more  apt  to  express  themselves  through  drawings 
than  are  adolescents.  This  is  probably  due  to  wrong  methods  of  teaching  drawing 
in  which  excellence  of  technique  is  demanded. 

7.  Strong,  striking,  colors;  red,  blue,  and  yellow,  and  sharp  contrasts  in  com- 
binations are  favorites  with  children,  and  the  softer  tints  and  more  harmonious 
combinations  are  later  effects  that  have  to  be  learned.  The  early  period  of  loud 
colors  and  gaudy  ornament  cannot  be  skipped,  if  the  development  is  to  be  natural 
and  healthy.     Artistic  appreciation  of  color  is  a  matter  of  slow  growth. 

STUDY  NO.  2.  Sargent,  Walter,  and  Miller,  Elizabeth  E.  How  chil- 
dren learn  to  draw.     Boston,  Ginn  and  Co.,  1916. 

Sargent  and  Miller,  through  a  series  of  experimental  lessons  in  which 
opportunity  was  given  children  to  draw  freely,  found  in  1916  that  interest 
in  "telling  something"  often  furnishes  a  motive  sufficient  to  inspire  good 
drawing.  They  also  definitely  determined  that  industrious  drawing  directly 
from  objects  unaided  by  other  sorts  of  study  and  practice  has  not  proved  to 
be  the  most  effective  way,  of  learning  to  represent  objects.  Children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  seven  and  fifteen  learn  to  draw,  if  at  all,  largely  by  aid 
of  memories  of  the  way  others  have  drawn  the  things  they  themselves  are 
attempting  to  represent.  For  this  reason,  a  collection  of  pictorial  reference 
material  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  equipment  in  drawing.  The  description 
by  another  person  sends  one  back  to  nature  with  a  new  capacity  for  analysis 
and  appreciation.  It  was  also  found  that  progress  in  ability  is  not  general 
but  specific.  Increase  in  ability  to  draw  means  increase  in  ability  to  draw 
those  particular  things  upon  which  one  has  been  practicing. 

STUDY  NO.  3.  Thorndike,  Edward  L.  "The  measurement  of  achieve- 
ment in  drawing."  Teachers  College  Record,  Columbia  Univ.,  November, 
1913. 

The  pioneer  effort  to  measure  a  person's  ability  in  drawing  was  made  by 
Thorndike  in  1913  when  he  constructed  a  scale  which  attempted  to  meas- 
ure the  child's  achievement.  To  do  this  an  objective  scale  for  drawing,  the 
use  of  which  is  reasonably  free  from  subjective  judgment  factors,  was  con- 
structed. Rankings  of  45  drawings  by  376  competent  judges  were  secured ; 
and  a  scale  formed  from  14  selected  specimens  ranging  by  more  or  less 
unequal  units  from  zero  to  17  in  merit.  Later  this  original  scale  was 
extended  and  revised  by  securing  the  ratings  of  4000  drawings  by  five  to 
15  judgments,  together  with  the  ratings  of  303  selected  drawings  by  75  to 
100  judgments.  The  revised  scale  was  formed  from  70  specimens  ranging 
from  zero  to  17  in  merit.  In  1922,  Kline  and  Carey  devised  a  more 
elaborate  scale  which  they  revised  in  1923. 

STUDY  NO.  4.  Kline,  Linus  W.,  and  Carey,  Gertrude  L.  The  Kline- 
Garey  measuring  scale  for  freehand  drawing.  Baltimore,  Johns  Hopkins 
Press,  1923. 

Purpose.  The  object  of  the  studies  carried  on  by  Kline  and  Carey  was 
to  construct  a  scale  which  would  measure  drawing  achievement  of  pupils  in 


342  Department  of  Superintendence 

the  elementary  grades.  Sample  drawings,  5214,  were  collected  under 
standard  conditions  upon  four  themes;  house,  rabbit,  figure  in  action,  tree, 
from  the  kindergarten  and  twelve  grades  of  the  public  school.  All  samples 
were  drawn  by  the  pupils  from  memory.  The  first  edition  was  scaled  by 
92  judges,  and  the  steps  between  the  samples  in  the  scale  were  determined 
by  the  statistical  methods  now  applied  to  educational  problems.  The  revised 
edition  No.  5a,  was  scaled  by  152  judges,  the  same  themes  being  used  as  in 
the  original  edition.  The  judges  were  teachers  and  supervisors  of  art  as 
well  as  professional  artists.  The  larger  number  of  judges  gives  stability 
to  the  position  assigned  to  the  samples  in  the  scale  and  a  high  degree  of 
reliability. 

Directions  for  using  the  scale  are  given  to  both  pupils  and  teachers.  Those 
for  the  pupils  are  as  follows:  Move  your  drawing  along  the  scale  folder 
until  a  sample  is  found  that  appears  to  match  it.  Read  the  description  (a 
critical  description  is  printed  under  each  sample)  given  below  the  scale 
sample,  and  notice  if  it  describes  your  own  drawing  as  well.  If  the  descrip- 
tion does  not  apply  so  well  to  your  own  drawing,  read  that  of  the  sample 
next  below  in  the  scale  and  compare  your  drawing  with  this  sample.  Now, 
if  your  drawing  matches  the  sample  and  fits  the  description,  write  on  your 
drawing  the  number  in  the  scale.  But  if  the  second  sample  and  its  descrip- 
tion is  not  so  good  as  the  first,  move  your  drawing  to  the  sample  that  is 
just  above  the  first  that  you  used  and  make  a  similar  comparison.  If  this 
is  more  satisfactory  than  either  of  the  other  two,  write  on  your  drawing  the 
number  of  the  scale  drawing.  This  number  is  the  score  of  your  drawing. 
Again,  should  your  drawing  have  some  features  that  match  one  sample  and 
other  features  that  match  an  adjacent  sample  give  to  your  drawing  a  score 
equal  to  the  average  of  the  two  adjacent  scale  values. 

Part  II  of  the  Kline-Carey  scale,  now  ready  for  publication,  is  a  scale  in 
Design  and  Composition,  based  upon  some  40,000  drawings  collected  under 
standard  conditions  from  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  scaled 
by  54  judges,  the  greater  number  of  whom  are  supervisors  of  drawing. 
The  themes  comprise  illustrations,  designs,  posters,  and  borders. 

STUDY  NO.  5.  McCarty,  Stella  A.  Children's  drawings.  Mount 
Royal  Avenue,  Baltimore,  Md.,  William  and  Wilkins,  1924. 

McCarty  and  the  Child  Study  Committee  of  the  International  Kinder- 
garten Union  in  1923  made  a  study  of  interests  and  abilities  as  expressed  in 
the  drawings  of  children.  Their  book  is  the  report  of  an  investigation  of 
the  drawings  of  children  of  the  kindergarten,  first  and  second  grades,  and 
of  the  years  four  to  eight  inclusive. 

Purpose.  The  objectives  included:  (1)  A  study  of  children's  interests 
as  indicated  by  the  subjects  selected  for  drawing;  (2)  the  construction  of  a 
series  of  scales  especially  designed  for  the  measurement  of  abilities  in  the 
early  stages  of  education;  (3)  the  application  of  the  scales  as  a  means  of 
arriving  at  a  number  of  psychological  and  educational  inferences;  and  (4) 
an  investigation  of  the  trend  of  development  of  certain  aspects  of  technique. 


The  Third  Yearbook  343 

Method.  The  Committee  based  its  report  on  the  examination  of  over 
31,000  free  drawings  of  school  children  of  the  ages  and  grades  included 
which  were  assembled  from  representative  cities  of  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  These  were  first  examined  to  discover  the  subjects  drawn,  which 
showed  a  range  of  about  1000  different  ideas,  a  complete  list  of  which  is 
presented  showing  ages  and  sexes.  The  ideas  were  then  classified  into  a  few 
generic  groups,  from  which  general  trends  of  interest  might  be  inferred. 
Human  beings  led,  having  been  represented  by  sixteen  per  cent  of  all  the 
children.  Then  follow,  in  this  order,  houses,  trees,  furniture,  vehicles, 
parts  of  houses,  animals,  toys,  flowers,  etc. 

Findings.  It  was  found  that  the  general  tendency  of  selection  changed 
with  age,  especially  by  a  notable  increase  in  nature  scenes  and  objects  and 
an  equally  notable  decrease  in  drawings  of  human  beings.  While  sex  differ- 
ences were  not  great,  they  appeared  with  some  constancy.  The  boys  had  a 
higher  percentage  of  portrayals  of  historical  events,  adult  social  relations, 
and  mechanical  concepts.  The  girls  had  a  higher  percentage  of  portrayals 
of  child  activities,  domestic  life,  and  the  more  esthetic  aspects  of  nature. 

Three  scales  were  constructed,  the  subjects  of  which  were  human  beings, 
houses,  and  compositions  including  trees.  The  scales  were  then  used  in 
evaluating  all  the  available  drawings  which  were  comparable  to  them. 
Tentative  forms  were  established  for  the  several  ages  and  grades.  It  was 
found  that,  while  average  ability  increases  with  age,  there  are,  as  in  other 
abilities,  such  overlappings  that  numbers  of  four  year  olds  reach  or  exceed 
the  median  for  eight  year  children.  In  general,  the  ability  to  draw  increased 
also  with  psychological  age :  the  six  year  old  children  in  first  grade  made  a 
higher  average  score  than  those  in  kindergarten,  etc. 

Comparison  of  the  several  cities  represented  showed  that  school  training 
is  responsible  for  much  of  the  difference  in  drawing  achievement.  The  per 
cent  of  children  reaching  or  exceeding  the  median  for  all  children  varied 
from  27-8  in  one  city  to  85-6  in  another,  and  these  differences  are  fairly 
constant  for  the  three  subjects  of  the  scales  and  for  the  three  school  grades 
represented. 

A  correlation  of  drawing  with  general  intelligence  was  computed  by  a 
comparison  of  the  drawing  scores  of  1420  children  with  their  intelligence 
quotients  by  the  Stanford-Binet  tests.  The  correlation  varied  considerably 
with  age,  but  the  coefficient  for  the  group  as  a  whole  was  .35.  It  was  found 
that  correlation  was  closer  at  the  lower  end  of  the  scale,  indicating  that 
some  factors  of  general  intelligence  are  indispensable  to  drawing. 

The  study  of  technique  generally  corroborated  the  findings  of  previous 
investigators.  Profile  drawings  were  rare  with  younger  children,  the  per 
cent  increasing  from  one  and  four  tenths  at  four  years  to  32.4  at  eight 
years.  The  assumption  that  a  mixed  type,  partly  full  face,  partly  profile, 
is  commonly  transitional  was  not  confirmed,  as  only  about  five  per  cent  of 
the  children  employed  this  form  at  any  age.  Outline  drawing  gradually 
gave  place  to  mass  drawing,  the  proportion  at  four  years  being  73.9  to  25.6 


344  Department  of  Superintendence 

per  cent,  at  eight  years  34.5  to  67.9  per  cent.  In  proportion  in  the  relative 
size  of  objects,  there  is  evidence  of  development  from  two  and  nine  tenths 
per  cent  at  four  years  to  26.7  per  cent  at  seven  years,  with  a  marked  decline 
at  eight  years.  In  balance,  or  symmetry  or  arrangement,  there  appears  to 
be  little  interest  during  these  years.  Perspective  is  also  slightly  in  evidence 
with  no  instances  at  four  years  and  only  one  and  four  tenths  per  cent  at 
seven  years.  The  mental  retardation  of  the  eight  year  children  in  the  lower 
primary  grades  is  indicated  by  the  fairly  consistent  decline  in  the  scores  for 
this  year  in  the  employment  of  balance,  proportion,  and  perspective,  and 
for  the  8-6  group  in  the  rating  by  the  scales.  Significant  sex  differences  are 
noted  in  the  greater  number  of  boys  employing  profile,  proportion,  and 
perspective,  and  of  girls  employing  balanced  arrangement. 

Findings.  The  McCarty  study  closes  with  a  statement  of  certain  educa- 
tional inferences  from  the  investigation — notably,  the  necessity  of  recogniz- 
ing individual  differences  in  drawing  ability,  as  fundamental  to  effective 
teaching  and  the  equally  significant  necessity  of  recognizing  that  the  de- 
velopment of  ability  to  draw  is  susceptible  to  training,  is  dependent  upon 
factors  of  enriched  experience  on  one  hand,  and  upon  direct  stimulation, 
with  judicious  guidance  toward  technique,  on  the  other. 

STUDY  NO.  6.  Williams,  Florence.  "An  investigation  of  children's 
preferences  for  pictures."     Elementary  School  Journal,  October,  1924. 

An  interesting  experiment  to  ascertain  the  preferences  of  children  for 
pictures  was  made  in  1924  by  Williams  which  points  the  way  toward  a 
somewhat  different  kind  of  study  which  aims  to  determine  the  types  of 
pictures  that  children  like  best.  The  report  of  Miss  Williams'  study  is  the 
account  of  an  experiment  made  in  the  Public  Art  Gallery  of  Richmond, 
Indiana.  It  is  not  assumed  by  the  author  of  this  study  that  sufficient  data 
were  collected  to  form  the  basis  of  reliable  conclusions  as  to  the  types  of 
pictures  which  children  prefer. 

The  collection  of  portraits  on  exhibit  included  thirty-two  oil  paintings, 
twenty-eight  colored  prints,  and  a  number  of  miniatures,  tintypes,  and 
daguerreotypes.  Classes  of  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  grade  children 
were  brought  to  the  gallery  to  see  the  exhibit,  making  a  total  of  939  chil- 
dren. The  children  were  asked  to  look  at  all  of  the  portraits  carefully  and 
pick  out  the  ones  they  liked  best.  This  was  to  be  done  without  communica- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  children  in  order  to  prevent  one  or  two  strong- 
minded  members  of  the  class  from  influencing  the  vote.  Each  child  handed 
to  the  teacher  a  slip  of  paper  on  which  he  had  written  the  catalog  number 
of  the  pictures  he  liked  best.  The  group  of  miniatures,  tintypes,  and 
daguerreotypes  were  each  given  one  catalog  number. 

A  second  exhibition  of  paintings  by  Richmond  artists  included  seventy- 
four  oil  paintings,  water  colors,  and  pastels.  Most  of  the  artists  were 
known  personally  or  by  reputation  to  many  of  the  children.  However, 
each  artist  exhibited  more  than  one  picture  and  many  of  the  pictures  were 
not  legibly  signed.     Therefore,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  each  child  made  a 


The  Third  Yearbook  345 


selection  independent,  to  some  extent,  of  his  liking  for  a  particular  artist. 
Fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  grade  children  visited  this  exhibit  and 
followed  the  same  procedure  as  was  described  for  the  exhibition  of  portraits. 

A  third  exhibition  of  paintings  by  Indiana  artists  consisted  of  one  hun- 
dred oil  paintings,  water  colors,  and  wood-block  prints.  One  thousand  and 
ninety-two  children  visited  the  exhibit  and  voted  for  their  favorite  picture. 
When  the  children  visited  this  exhibition,  the  pupils  in  some  of  the  classes 
were  not  asked  to  select  the  picture  which  they  liked  best  until  after  a 
lesson  was  given  in  which  the  teacher  tried  to  emphasize  the  merits  of 
certain  pictures.  Pictures  numbered  15  and  98  were  discussed;  yet  each  of 
these  pictures  received  less  than  fifteen  votes.  Evidently,  the  instruction 
had  little  to  do  with  the  choice  of  pictures.  In  every  class,  there  was  a 
large  vote  for  "Mussell  Rocks,"  which  was  not  mentioned  in  any  of  the 
lessons. 

Findings.  Miss  Williams  found  that  there  is  a  marked  tendency  for  the 
majority  of  children  to  like  the  same  pictures.  Most  children  show  a 
tendency  to  choose  pictures  which  are  examples  of  good  painting.  Chil- 
dren like  pictures  of  people,  places,  or  incidents  with  which  they  are  familiar. 
Children  show  some  interest  in  pictures  of  children.  It  has  always 
been  assumed  that  children  like  pictures  of  other  children,  but  this  fact  has 
probably  been  exaggerated.  In  the  portrait  exhibit,  the  picture  which 
received  the  highest  percentage  of  votes  was  not  a  picture  of  a  child.  Pictures 
of  things  unfamiliar  to  the  children,  but  about  which  they  have  read  and 
heard  are  popular.  Pictures  which  tell  a  story  appeal  to  children  to  some 
extent.  This  is  a  fact  which  art  teachers  have  always  assumed  to  be  true. 
However,  it  may  not  be  so  great  a  factor  in  awakening  appreciation  for 
pictures  as  has  been  supposed.  Children  like  pictures  in  which  there  are  a 
few  large,  easily  distinguished  objects  in  the  foreground.  Instruction 
influences  only  to  a  small  extent  a  person's  liking  for  certain  pictures.  A 
study  of  the  technique  and  composition  or  facts  about  the  artist  apparently 
contribute  little  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  picture. 

STUDY  NO.  7.  Manuel,  Herschel  Thurman.  Talent  in  drawing. 
School  and  Home  Education  Monographs,  No.  3.  Bloomington,  111., 
Public  School  Publishing  Co.,  1919. 

In  1919,  Manuel  made  a  study  of  talent  in  drawing  which  contains 
much  of  value  to  the  art  teacher  who  would  direct  the  inclination  and 
capacity  of  pupils  toward  graphic  artistic  expression.  The  objects  of  this 
study  were  to  discover  what  are  the  essential  characteristics  of  persons 
talented  in  drawing  and  to  determine  how  the  test  method  may  be  used  in 
the  diagnosis  of  talent.  A  number  of  individuals  were  selected  for  their 
recognized  talent  in  drawing.  To  these  persons  mental  and  physical  tests 
were  applied,  and  other  information  of  a  non-experimental  character,  par- 
ticularly bibliographical,  was  gathered  from  different  sources. 

Findings.  The  investigation  revealed  great  individual  differences  in  the 


346  Department  of  Superintendence 


mental  and  physical  characteristics  of  persons  who  are  talented  in  drawing. 
These  were  some  of  the  findings : 

1.  A  certain  elementary  ability  in  graphic  representation,  such  as  is  required  for 
success  with  elementary  school  drawing,  is  independent,  or  partially  independent, 
of  general  intelligence. 

2.  General  intelligence  conditions  the  ability  of  drawers:  (a)  To  acquire  the 
advanced  technique  into  which  conceptual  factors  enter;  and  (b)  to  create  original 
drawings  of  merit. 

3.  The  motor  ability  which  underlies  talent  for  drawing  is  specific  rather  than 
general;  talent  for  drawing  does  not  presuppose   a  general  motor  superiority. 

4.  Achievement  in  handwriting  and  ability  in  drawing  are  relatively  inde- 
pendent of  each  other. 

5.  The  ability  to  discriminate  fine  differences  in  visual  magnitudes  varies  in 
persons  talented  in  drawing. 

6.  Tests  of  memory  for  visual  forms  have  value  in  determining  the  character- 
istics of  one's  drawing  ability;  but  one  may  have  a  certain  ability  in  graphic 
representation  without  a  good  memory  for  visual  forms,  other  than  the  immediate 
memory  required  in  looking  from  the  object  to  the  drawing  surface. 

7.  Quality  of  performance  in  graphic  representation  and  quality  of  performance 
in  aesthetic  judgment  are  independent,  or  at  least  partially  independent  variables. 

8.  Interest  may  indicate  either  a  superior  innate  ability  or  merely  a  high  develop- 
ment of  a  rather  ordinary  endowment;  but  it  is  of  immense  practical  importance 
as  an  index  of  the  energy  which  one  is  willing  to  expend  in  the  development  of 
one's  ability  and  in  practical  achievement. 

9.  There  is  no  one  psychological  constitution  for  talent  in  drawing;  the  essential 
characteristics  vary  with  the  type  of  talent  possessed. 

Manuel  also  found  that  the  following  characteristics,  each  an  independent 
or  partially  independent  variable,  seem  closely  related  to  ability  in  drawing: 

1.  The  ability  mentally  to  note  a  visual  form,  and  by  certain  lines  and   areas, 
to  reproduce  it  or  significant  features  of  it 

2.  Ability  to  observe 

3.  Ability  to  select  from  a  complex  visual  situation  the  most  beautiful  aspects 

4.  Memory  of  visual  forms 

5.  Ability  mentally  to  manipulate  visual  forms 

6.  Ability   to    control    hand    movements    in    accordance    with   visual   percept    or 
image 

7.  Ability   to    invent   or   to   bring   together   into   new    artistic   combinations   the 
elements  of  different  visual  experience 

8.  Ability  to  judge  the  beautiful  in  line,  form,  color,  and  composition 

9.  Ability  to  discriminate  differences  in  color 

10.  Ability  t<?  discriminate  differences  in  visual  magnitude 

11.  Acuity  of  vision 

12.  Interest  in  the  act  and  products  of  drawing 

13.  General  intelligence 

The  test  method  and  diagnosis  of  drawing  talent  are  summarized  by 
Manuel  as  follows: 

1.  A  diagnosis  of  talent  in  drawing  must  be  based  upon  an  analysis  of  the, 
talent  and  a  measurement  of  the  constituent  psychophysical  factors. 

2.  The  following  program  of  tests  is  recommended  for  the  diagnosis  of 
talent  in  drawing: 


The  Third  Yearbook  347 


a.  Tests  of  the  elementary  ability  to  represent,  by  lines  and   areas,  the  figures 
and  objects  observed 

b.  Tests  of  the  ability  to  observe 

c.  Tests  of  ability  to  select  from  a  complex,  visual  situation  the  most  representa- 

tive and  most  beautiful  aspects 

d.  Tests  of  memory  for  visual  forms 

e.  Tests  of  ability  to  control  hand  movements  in  accordance  with  visual  precept 

and  image 

f.  Tests  of  ability  mentally  to  manipulate  visual  forms 

g.  Tests  of  ability  to  invent,  to  bring  together  into  new  artistic  combinations  the 
elements  of  different  visual  experiences 

h.  Tests  of  ability  to  judge  the  beautiful  in  line,  form,  color,  and  composition 

i.  Tests  of  ability  to  discriminate  differences  in  color 

j.  Tests  of  ability  to  discriminate  differences  in  visual  magnitude 

k.  Tests  of  acuity  of  vision 

1.  Tests  of  general  intelligence 

3.  Interpretation  of  the,  results  of  the  tests  necessitates  standards  of 
achievements  with  which  the  performance  of  a  given  individual  may  fairly 
be  compared. 

4.  Every  child  should  be  given  a  many-sided  opportunity  in  drawing,  and 
an  attempt  should  be  made  to  develop  corresponding  interest. 

5.  Biographical  and  personal  data  of  a  non-experimental  character  should 
be  used  to  assist  in  the  diagnosis  of  talent  in  drawing. 

6.  It  is  recommended  that  tests  which  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  estimat- 
ing the  possibilities  of  improvement  in  any  given  factor  be  conducted  as 
instructed-learning  tests. 

7.  The  measurement  of  many  different  abilities  not  primarily  related  to 
drawing  is  necessary  to  the  most  effective  educational  and  vocational  use  of 
measurements  of  ability  in  drawing. 

STUDY  NO.  8.  Gibson,  Katherine.  An  experiment  in  measuring  the 
results  of  fifth-grade  class  visits  to  an  art  museum.  Cleveland,  Ohio,  Un- 
published Study  in  Files  of  Educational  Department  of  Cleveland  Museum 
of  Art,  1924. 

Last  year,  Miss  Katherine  Gibson  carried  on  an  interesting  experiment 
in  measuring  the  results  of  the  visits  of  fifth-grade  classes  to  the  Art  Museum 
in  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Purpose.  The  problem  was  to  find,  if  possible,  the  effect  of  art  lessons 
on  three  different  groups  of  children:  "X"  classes,  those  made  up  of  the 
most  intelligent,  as  measured  by  standard  tests;  "Y"  classes,  those  of  aver- 
age intelligence;  and  "Z"  classes,  those  of  least  intelligence. 

Questions  were  made  out  in  mimeographed  form  on  seven  lessons  given 
in  the  galleries.  The  subject  in  general  was  colonial  art,  since  fifth-grade 
classes  in  Cleveland  have  both  American  history  and  picture  study.  The 
questions  were  given  to  59  classes  from  26  schools,  totaling  2024  children. 
The  results  were  scored  and  statistics  arranged  on  the  basis  of  "X,"  "Y," 
and  "Z"  groups ;  first,  as  to  intelligence  in  response  to  the  tests ;  second,  on 
the  basis  of  home  environment;  and  third,  on  racial  differences. 


348  Department  of  Superintendence 

Findings.  The  questions  were  answered  relatively  better  by  the  "Y" 
and  "Z"  children  than  by  the  "X"  children.  The  "X"  child  did  not  score 
high.  The  "Z"  child  scored  higher  than  one  would  be  led  to  expect  from 
other  comparative  studies  of  "X,"  "Y,"  and  "Z"  groups.  This  suggests 
the  conclusion  that  the  child  of  low  intelligence  profits  by  the  touch  with 
the  concrete  objects  which  he  gets  in  museums.  The  "X"  child  evidently 
was  not  offered  enough  chance  for  original  thinking  and  sufficient  richness 
of  material  in  the  lessons  given. 

The  experiment  is  being  continued  this  year  with  a  view  to  finding  the 
right  type  of  lesson  for  the  "X"  child.  Obviously  the  same  lesson  can  not 
be  given  to  the  three  groups  of  children.  Home  environment  and  racial 
differences,  as  they  appeared  in  this  experiment,  were  factors  subordinate  to 
that  of  the  "X,"  "Y,"  "Z"  grouping — that  is,  to  general  intelligence  as 
measured  by  standard  tests. 

The  studies  in  drawing  and  art  appreciation  that  have  been  made  help 
the  elementary  teacher  to  provide  instruction  which  is  in  some  measure  ap- 
propriate both  from  the  standpoint  of  the  child  and  of  the  curriculum  as  a 
whole.  Little  children  draw  to  express  themselves.  Their  earliest  efforts 
are  scribbles  meaningless  to  the  adult.  Their  later  drawings  are  more  pur- 
poseful and  begin  to  have  meaning  even  for  the  adult.  Genuine  art  in- 
struction can  and  should  begin  with  very  young  children.  This  is  most 
often  accomplished  when  pupils  are  given  opportunity  to  draw  to  express 
themselves  and  to  interpret  for  themselves  beautiful  pictures  by  reading, 
directly  from  the  pictures,  the  stories  that  the  pictures  tell.  Children  draw- 
ing to  please  themselves  most  often  represent  people,  houses,  trees,  furni- 
ture, vehicles,  animals,  toys,  flowers,  and  other  things  that  they  love.  The 
drawings  of  young  children  always  tell  a  story.  They  often  show  people 
and  things  in  action.  Children  prefer  strongly  contrasting  colors  to  weak 
colors  of  similar  hue,  value,  or  chroma. 

Telling  something  often  furnishes  a  motive  sufficient  to  inspire  good 
drawing.  Young  children  should  not  be  required  to  draw  from  ob- 
jects. In  the  elementary  school,  design  should  be  stressed  far  more  than 
representation  if  the  instruction  is  to  be  of  any  value  in  the  field  of  art  ap- 
preciation. However,  in  the  teaching  of  drawing  as  a  part  of  the  elementary 
school  subject  called  art,  a  generous  supply  of  good  pictorial  reference  ma- 
terial should  always  be  at  hand.  By  means  of  this  material  aesthetic  ideals 
can  be  developed  which  will  become  standards  for  artistic  expression  and 
selection. 

In  the  subject  of  art,  methods  of  teaching  similar  to  those  advised  for 
other  elementary  school  subjects  should  be  used.  Opportunity  should  be 
offered  continually  for  genuine  experience  in  purposing,  planning,  execut- 
ing, and  judging.  Critical,  fair  judgment  of  one's  own  work  and  the  work 
of  others  makes  for  a  much  needed  social  and  emotional  stability.  Knowing 
how  things  are  done,  the  amount  of  time,  effort,  and  labor  involved  in  pro- 
duction makes  for  better  social  and  emotional  adjustment.    The  results  and 


The  Third  Yearbook  349 


conclusions  of  scientific  investigation  should  be  made  use  of  in  art  as  in 
other  phases  of  education.  The  development  of  tests  for  factual  informa- 
tion relating  to  art  should  be  encouraged  as  well  as  the  development  of 
tests  for  the  measurement  of  skill  in  drawing.  A  distinction  should  be 
made  between  the  aesthetic  phase  of  art  instruction  and  the  technical  phase 
that  necessitates  drill  in  execution.  On  the  content  side  the  subject  of  art 
should  be  made  to  connect  closely  with  the  other  subjects  of  the  curriculum. 
The  project  method  should  be  used.  Problem  solving  should  play  an  im- 
portant part. 

There  is  need  for  careful  and  scientific  analysis  of  the  content  of  the 
subject  of  art,  the  aims  of  instruction,  and  the  principles  underlying  in- 
struction in  design,  representation,  color,  construction,  and  lettering.  If 
these  principles  are  applied  only  in  drawing  as  a  school  subject,  the  results 
will  be  unsatisfactory.  The  principles  must  be  so  taught  as  to  apply  to  all 
situations  in  order  that  they  may  function  in  the  life  of  the  child,  and  so 
that  the  subject  of  art  may  contribute  much  to  every  other  subject  in  the 
course  of  study.  Consequently,  art  education  should  be  given  an  important 
place  in  the  normal-school  training  of  every  grade  teacher,  and  it  should 
also  be  be  given  more  emphasis  in  the  elementary  curriculum,  more  time, 
and  the  needed  equipment  and  supplies. 

STUDY  NO.  9.  Riker,  Olive  M.  Color  preferences  of  elementary 
school  children.  A  master's  thesis  on  file  in  the  Library  of  the  University 
of  Wisconsin. 

Problem.  ( 1 )  Do  children  prefer  intense  or  saturated  colors,  or  do 
they  prefer  a  tint  or  shade  of  those  colors? 

(2)  In  this,  are  there  any  sex  differences? 

(3)  Is  there  any  difference  in  choice  as  children  increase  in  age? 

(4)  Is  their  choice  affected  by  their  environment  or  the  locality  in  which 
they  live? 

Method.  Four  colors  with  one  tint  and  one  shade  of  each  were  used: 
red,  blue,  yellow  and  green,  making  twelve  colors  in  all.  Four  charts  were 
used  from  which  the  children  made  their  choices.  On  these  charts  no  color 
was  in  the  same  position  on  the  chart  twice,  and  no  color  was  next  to  any 
other  color  twice.  This  was  to  avoid  the  influences  that  colors  have  on 
each  other.  The  chart  itself  was  neutral  gray,  26  by  22  inches.  Colored 
papers  were  used,  each  three  inches  square.  Each  color  had  a  black  letter 
of  identification  under  it. 

To  correlate  with  English  experiments  in  the  same  field,  the  child  was 
given  a  printed  card  with  places  for  six  choices.  Six  points  were  given  for 
the  first  choice,  five  for  the  second,  four  for  the  third  and  so  on  to  the  sixth, 
which  received  but  one  point,  and  averages  computed. 

The  children  were  questioned  as  follows:  Which  color  on  this  chart  do 
you  like  best?  Put  on  the  first  line  the  letter  under  the  color.  Similar 
procedure  followed  for  the  remaining  five  choices  and  the  same  process  ap- 


350 


Department  of  Superintendence 


plied  to  the  four  charts.  A  total  of  1199  elementary  school  children  in  Wis- 
consin, including  grades  one  to  eight,  were  tested. 

Findings.  First  choice  was  given  to  intense  or  saturated  color  as  was 
the  second  choice,  red  ranking  first,  followed  closely  by  intense  blue,  with 
a  tint  of  red  for  third  choice.    Girls  preferred  a  tint  of  red  for  first  choice. 

Summary  of  first  choices  arranged  in  order: 


General 

Girls 

Boys 

1. 

Red 

Red  Tint 

Red 

2. 

Blue 

Blue 

Blue 

3. 

Red  Tint 

Red 

Green 

4. 

Green 

Red  Tint 

Blue  Tint 

5. 

Blue  Tint 

Green 

Red  Shade 

6. 

Red   Shade 

Red  Shade 

Blue  Tint 

7. 

Blue  Shade 

Green  Tint 

Blue  Shade 

8. 

Green   Tint 

Blue  Shade  (7) 

Green  Shade 

9. 

Green  Shade 

Green   Shade 

Green  Tint 

10. 

Yellow 

Yellow 

Yellow 

11. 

Yellow   Tint 

Yellow  Tint 

Yellow  Tint 

12. 

Yellow  Shade 

Yellow  Shade 

Yellow  Shade 

(11) 

Answering  the  questions  included  in  the  statement  of  the  problem : 

(1)  In  the  first  eight  grades,  children  seem  to  show  an  inclination 
towards  the  saturated  colors. 

(2)  There  seems  to  be  a  slight  desire  for  girls  to  like  more  tints  and 
shades  than  do  the  boys. 

(3)  With  changing  age,  there  seems  to  be  a  steady  change  of  choice. 
Red  is  constant  for  boys  with  a  tint  of  red  remaining  with  the  girls.  Both 
boys  and  girls  show  a  steady  increase  in  favor  of  blue.  A  tint  of  blue 
shows  an  increase  with  girls,  but  a  slight  decrease  with  boys.  The  shade 
of  blue  seems  to  be  unpopular  with  boys  of  all  ages  and  shows  a  steady  de- 
cline in  favor  with  girls.  Boys  and  girls  have  a  growing  appreciation  for 
green.  Appreciation  for  tints  of  green  decline  accompanied  by  a  growing 
desire  for  green  shades.  Yellow  remains  constant  with  girls  but  drops 
with  boys.  A  tint  of  yellow  shows  an  upward  trend  with  both  boys  and 
girls.  Children  in  the  lower  grades  indicate  a  slight  preference  for  pale 
colors. 

(4)  Social  conditions  were  marked  by  decided  changes  in  the  color 
preferences. 

STUDY  NO.  io.  Stewart,  Lillian  V.  The  correlation  of  drawing  and 
handwritinff.  An  unpublished  thesis  on  file  in  the  library  of  the  University 
of  Wisconsin.     1922. 

Problem.  Since  it  seems  that  writing  has  developed  through  the  chan- 
nels of  drawing,  and  because  a  child  follows  the  course  of  primitive  man 
in  his  learning  process,  the  question  naturally  follows  whether  there  is  any 


The  Third  Yearbook  351 

direct  relation  between  the  drawing  act  and  the  writing  act,  and  con- 
versely if  he  writes  poorly  will  he  draw  poorly?  The  following  ques- 
tions were  considered : 

1.  Does  large  freehand  drawing  have  the  advantage  of  establishing  a  poise  and 
muscular  control  which  will  facilitate  the   acquisition  of  penmanship? 

2.  Will  drawing  give  fundamental  muscles  the  development  needed  for  writing? 

3.  Should  the  child  learn  to  draw  and  write  at  the  same  time  or  would  it  profit 
him  to  learn  the  former  first? 

4.  Does  drawing  which  is  healthful  and  hygenic  prepare  in  an  easy  and  nat- 
ural way  for  the  more  exacting  task  of  writing? 

5.  Do  the  habits  of  neatness,  care  in  execution,  and  good  forms  established  in 
drawing  aid  in  the  teaching  of  writing? 

6.  Is  there  any  sex  difference  in  the  ability  to  draw?     In  the  ability  to  write? 

Method.  Test  in  Grade  One.  Pencils  and  paper  were  passed  and  the 
following  preliminary  statement  was  made:  "Today  we  are  going  to  have 
a  new  writing  game.  I  shall  read  some  sentences  to  you.  You  will  write 
them  as  nicely  as  you  can,  but  instead  of  writing  the  last  word,  draw  a 
picture."     A  typical  sentence  begins:    This  is  a  bird. 

In  Grade  Two.  The  sentences  increased  in  difficulty  while  two  pictures 
drawn  from  memory  accompanied  each  sentence,  as  "I  saw  a  (boy)  play- 
ing (ball)."  In  grades  three  and  four  each  pupil  was  given  a  sheet  of 
paper  upon  which  were  drawn  geometric  figures.  They  were  given 
drawing  paper  and  told  to  reproduce  these  figures  as  nearly  like  the  copy 
as  they  could.  A  writing  sample  accompanied  each  drawing.  The  tests 
for  grades  five,  six  and  seven,  excepting  increasingly  difficult  drawings  to 
reproduce,  including  vase  and  other  forms,  were  similar  to  grades  three 
and  four. 

Scoring.  The  rank  method  as  recommended  by  Fred  C.  Ayer  in  his 
Psychology  of  drawing  was  adopted,  necessitating  a  careful  comparison  of 
the  drawings  and  arranging  them  in  the  order  of  ability  shown  in  each. 
The  same  plan  was  used  for  ranking  the  writing  ability.  The  average  and 
chance  differences  were  estimated  by  the  Ayre's  formula.  The  numerical 
value  of  the  correlation  was  found  by  the  use  of  Pierson's  method  adapted 
to  rank  differences. 

Findings.  From  the  coefficients  worked  out,  the  obvious  conclusion  is 
that  a  direct,  positive  correlation  exists  between  drawing  and  writing, 
higher  in  the  lower  than  in  the  upper  grades.  In  the  lower  grades,  the  de- 
gree of  correlation  is  higher  among  the  boys  than  among  the  girls  while  in 
the  higher  grades  the  reverse  is  true. 

It  has  been  noted  that  the  young  child  displays  excess  muscular  activity 
while  attempting  to  write,  but  if  the  same  child  is  watched  while  he 
draws,  these  movements  are  absent.  It  is  because  his  drawing  is  large  and 
free.  It  would  therefore  appear  to  be  a  good  plan  to  train  the  hand  through 
drawing  and  develop  a  steadiness  of  attention  and  sureness  of  eye  before 
teaching  writing,  which  involves  very  complex  and  finely  coordinated  move- 
ments.    Meumann  advocates  that  little  writing  should  be  done  when  the 


352  Department  of  Superintendence 

child  first  begins,  and  that  little  should  be  acquired  as  unconsciously  as 
possible.  However,  the  child  should  be  allowed  to  express  himself  freely 
on  large  surfaces  in  drawing.  Drawing  is  healthful  and  hygienic  and  pre- 
pares in  a  natural  and  easy  way  for  the  more  exacting  task  of  writing. 

It  would  profit  the  child  to  learn  to  draw  first  because  the  large  free 
work  he  does  in  drawing  will  make  the  more  difficult  task  of  writing  easier 
to  acquire. 

If  the  correlation  is  direct  and  positive  as  between  the  abilities  to  write 
and  to  draw,  then  training  in  the  essential  habits  of  neatness,  care  and  ob- 
servation for  drawing  must  be  factors  in  that  correlation  since  they  are 
dominant  factors  in  the  ability  to  draw  well. 

Bibliography — Studies  in  Art 

Ayer,  Fred  C.  Psychology  of  drawing  with  special  reference  to  laboratory  teach- 
ing.   Baltimore,  Warwick  and  York,  1916. 

Bach,  R.  F.     "Art  in  industry  illustrated."     School  Arts  Magazine,  January,   1924. 

Bailey,  Henry  Turner.     Art  education.     Boston,  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1914. 

Barnes,  Earl.  "Study  of  children's  drawings."  Pedagogical  Seminary,  December, 
1893. 

Beard,  Florence.     "Beauty  in  education."     School  Arts  Magazine,  October,  1922. 

Bennett,  C.  A.  "Art  training  that  will  function."  Industrial  Education  Magazine, 
December,   1923. 

Boas,  Belle.     Art  in  the  school.     New  York,  Doubleday,  Page  Co.,   1924. 

Bonser,  Frederick  G.  "Some  educational  deductions  from  the  art  of  the  great 
periods."  Addresses  and  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association, 
1908. 

The  elementary  school  curriculum.     New  York,  Macmillan  C°->  1920. 

Bonser,  Frederick  G.,  and  Mossman,  L.  C.  Industrial  arts  for  elementary  schools. 
New  York,  Macmillan  Co.,   1923. 

Brown,  Elmer  Ellsworth.    Notes  on  children's  drawings.     Univ.  of  California,  1897. 

Clark,  A.  B.  The  child's  attitude  toward  perspective  problems.  Stanford  Univ., 
Studies  in  Education. 

Cooke,  Ebenezer.  "Art  teaching  and  child  nature."  London,  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion, 1885. 

De  Garmo,  Charles,  and  Winslow,  L.  L.  Essentials  in  design.  New  York,  Mac- 
millan Co.,  1924. 

Dewey,  John.  "Culture  and  professionalism  in  education."  School  and  Society, 
October  13,  1923. 

Dobbs,  Ella  Victoria.  Illustrative  handwork  for  elementary  school  subjects.  New 
York,  Macmillan  Co.,   1917. 

Dow,  Arthur  W.  Theory  and  practice  of  teaching  art.  Teachers  College,  Colum- 
bia University,  1912. 

Edgerton,  A.  H.  "Industrial  arts  in  our  elementary  schools."  Peoria,  111.,  In- 
dustrial Education  Magazine,   1922. 

Farnum,  Royal  Bailey.  Art  education.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  1923, 
No.   13. 

Present  status   of  drawing   and   art   in   the   elementary   and  secondary 

schools  of  the  United  States.     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  1914,  No.  13. 

Gibson,  Katherine.  An  experiment  in  measuring  the  results  of  fifth  grade  class 
•visits  to  an  art  museum.  Cleveland,  Ohio,  Unpublished  Study  in  Files  of 
Educational  Department  of  Cleveland  Museum  of  Art,  1924. 

Haney,  James  Parton.  "Art  education  in  the  public  schools  of  the  United  States." 
New  York,  American  Art  Annual,  1908. 


The  Third  Yearbook  353 


Howells,  W.  D.     A  little  girl  among  the  old  masters.     Boston,  J.  R.   Osgood   and 

Co.,  1884. 
Kline,  Linus  W.,  and  Carey,  Gertrude  L.     The  Kline-Carey  measuring  scale  for 

freehand  drawing.     Baltimore,   Johns    Hopkins    Press,    1923. 
Lukens,    H.    T.     "A    study   of    children's    drawing."      The    Pedagogical   Seminary, 

October,  1896. 
Major,  David  R.     First  steps  in  mental  growth.     New  York,  Macmillan  Co.,  1906. 
Manuel,    Herschel    Thurman.     Talent    in    drawing.     School    and    Home    Education 

Monographs,  No.  3.     Bloomington,  111.,  Public  School  Publishing  Co.,  1919. 
Mathias,  Margaret  E.      The  beginnings   of  art  in  the  public  schools.     New  York, 

Charles   Scribner's   Sons,   1924. 
McCarty,  Stella  A.     Children's  drawings.     Mount  Royal  Avenue,  Baltimore,  Md., 

William  and  Wilkins,   1924. 
Niles,  Helen  R.     "Aesthetic  appreciation  and  intelligence."     School  Arts  Magazine, 

June,  1924. 
O'Shea,   M.  V.      The   child,  his   nature  and  his   needs.     Valparaiso,   Indiana,   The 

Children's   Foundation,   1924. 
Riker,  Olive  M.     Color  preferences  of  elementary  school  children.     An  unpublished 

thesis  on  file  in  the  Library  of  University  of  Wisconsin. 
Russell,  James  E.,  and  Bonser,  Frederick  G.     Industrial  education.'   Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  Univ.,  1912. 
Sargent,  Walter.     "Problems  in  the  experimental  pedagogy  of  drawing."     Journal 

of  Educational  Psychology,  1912. 
Instruction   in   art  in   the   United  States.     U.   S.  Bureau  of  Education, 

Bulletin  1918,  No.  43. 
and  Miller,  Elizabeth  E.     How  children  learn  to  draw.     Boston,  Ginn 

and  Co.,  1916. 
Stewart,   Lillian   V.      The   correlation   of   drawing   and   handwriting.     An    unpub- 
lished thesis  on  file  in  the  Library  of  University  of  Wisconsin,  1922. 
Thorndike,  Edward  L.     "The  measurement  of  achievement  in  drawing."     Teachers 

College  Record,  Columbia  Univ.,  November,   1913. 
Welling,  Jane  Betsy.     "School  art  and  the  department  store."     Everyday  Art  Mag- 

agine,  June,  1924. 

Social  and  industrial  studies.     Philadelphia,  J.  B.  Lippincott,  1923. 

Suggestions  on  art  education  for  elementary  schools.     U.  S.  Bureau  of 

Education,  Industrial  Education  Circular,  No.  21,  October,  1923. 
Whitford,  W.  J.     "A  brief  history  of  art  education  in  the  United  States."     Elemen- 
tary School  Journal,  October,  1923. 
Williams,    Florence.    "An    investigation    of    children's    preferences    for    pictures." 

Elementary  School  Journal,  October,  1924. 
Winslow,  Leon  L.     "The  art  education  we  need."     Educational  Review,  1923. 
Organization   and   Teaching   of  Art.     Baltimore,   Warwick   and   York, 

1925. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

MUSIC 

Jacob  Kwalwasser,  Head  of  Department  of  Public  School  Music,  State  University 
of  Iowa,  Iowa  City,  Iowa,  Chairman 

Suggested  Major  Problems  in  the  Formation  of  the  Curriculum  in  Music 

1.  What  standards  of  achievement  in  music  should  sixth-grade  children 

meet? 

2.  To  what  extent  should  the  course  of  study  in  music  recognize  indi- 

vidual differences?     Should   there   be   uniform  curricular   require- 
ments for  all  students? 

3.  Should  the  course  of  study  in  music  be  built  upon  music  as  a  science  or 

music  as  an  art? 

4.  To  what  extent  should  makers  of  courses  of  study  recognize  the  sensory 

handicaps  and  variations  in  children?     Should  a  special  curriculum 
be  devised  for  selected  groups? 

5.  When  shall  the  teaching  of  music  as  a  science  begin  in  the  elementary 

schools  ? 

6.  How  shall  a  course  of  study  in  music  provide  for  training  in  musical 

appreciation  and  memorization? 

7.  To  what  extent  shall  scientific  testing  and  standardization  be  a  factor 

in  the  making  of  a  course  of  study  in  music  ? 

8.  What  time   allotment  should   be   considered  in  making  a  course   of 

study  in  music? 

9.  In  what  form  should  the  course  of  study  be  prepared:  printed  book, 

leaflets,  special  bulletins? 

10.  Has  assembly  singing  a  place  in  every  course  of  study? 

11.  To  what  extent  should  technical  exercise,  in  distinction  from  songs,  be 

used  in  a  course  of  study? 

12.  Most  effective  methods  of  training  monotones? 

13.  Should  music  be  approached  through   rhythm?     What  place  should 

rhythm  work  have  in  the  music  curriculum  ? 

"The  art  of  music  and  the  graphic  and  plastic  arts  are  far  behind  other  academic 
subjects  in  the  attempt  to  apply  the  scientific  method  to  their  problem  of  subject 
matter,  theory  and  pedagogy.  This  is  due  to  two  principal  causes:  first,  that  the 
typical  artistic  mind  is  seldom  interested  in  the  scientific  aspect  of  the  art;  and 
second,  that  these  arts  have  not  yet  been  thoroughly  stabilized  and  assigned  their 
proper  places  in  the  public  school  curriculum.  To  this  should  be  added  the  fact 
that  even  today  the  real  artist  and  musician  are  primarily  engrossed  in  the  art 
interest  and  leave  to  the  pedagog  and  educational  administrator,  such  as  the 
supervisor  of  art  and  music,  the  task  of  effecting  pedagogical  adjustments. 

"Because  of  the  extravagant  claims  made  by  enthusiasts  for  music  education, 
and  their  indiscriminate  attempts  to  force  a  flat  universal  music  requirement  upon 
every  child  in  the  public  schools  regardless  of  his  innate  capacities  or  abilities  to 
profit  by  such  education,  the  wholesome  growth  of  music  in  the  public  schools  has 
been  seriously  impeded.     Little  wonder  that  many  leaders  in  the  field  of  education 

[354] 


The  Third  Yearbook  355 


have  shown  indifference  and  even  hostility  at  times,  to  some  of  the  naive  claims 
made  for  music  education. 

"In  attempting  to  apply  the  scientific  procedure  to  the  content  and  pedagogy  of 
music,  the  pioneer  faces  the  attitude  of  indifference  on  the  part  of  educational  ad- 
ministrators;  aloofness  and  suspicion  on  the  part  of  creative  musicians;  and 
amused  tolerance  on  the  part  of  the  school  music  supervisor.  As  a  result,  the 
meager  contributions  which  have  been  made,  have  fallen  as  crumbs  from  the 
tables  of  other  interests,  such  as  psychology  of  individual  differences,  and  the 
psychology  of  music." — Carl  E.  Seashore. 

Experimental  Studies  in  Music  Education 

Probably  more  scientific  work  has  been  done  on  problems  1,  2,  4,  and  7, 
than  upon  any  others  in  public  school  music  education.  Little  or  no  work 
of  a  scientific  nature  has  been  done  on  the  other  problems  listed.  It  is 
necessary,  therefore,  that  this  report  be  limited  to  a  discussion  and  critical 
evaluation  of  those  experimental  studies  which  have  a  bearing  on  the  prob- 
lems enumerated. 

I.  Measurement  of  Talent 

A.  The  Seashore  measures  of  musical  talent.1 — Probably  the  most 
epoch-making  work  in  the  history  of  music  education  is  that  of  Seashore 
and  his  associates  in  the  State  University  of  Iowa  on  the  analysis  and 
measurement  of  musical  talent.  On  the  sensory  side,  musicianship  is  ana- 
lyzed into  its  irreducible  elements.  For  each  of  these  elements,  such  as  the 
sense  of  pitch,  the  sense  of  rhythm,  etc.,  specific  quantitative  measurements 
are  devised. 

These  tests  make  it  possible  for  us  to  discover  the  exact  musical  nature 
of  the  child.  They  make  it  possible  for  the  teacher  to  conserve  musical 
talent.  With  the  aid  of  these  tests,  music  education  may  now  be  adapted  to 
utilize  the  child's  innate  capacities.  The  tests  reveal  the  magnitude  of  in- 
dividual differences  in  endowment.  If  the  teacher  realizes  fully  the  signifi- 
cance of  these  differences,  it  will  enable  her  to  give  each  child  a  musical 
opportunity  commensurate  with  his  actual  capacity.  In  order  to  facilitate 
the  discussion  of  this  work,  it  may  be  divided  advantageously  and  treated 
under  three  headings — namely,  value  to  the  child,  value  to  the  teacher, 
and  value  to  the  schools. 

1.  Value  to  the  child — (a)  The  Seashore  Measures  of  Musical  Talent 
tests  may  be  used  for  the  discovery  of  talent  hitherto  unrecognized  and  un- 
developed. The  measures  referred  to  are  the  sense  of  pitch,  time,  intensity, 
consonance,  rhythm,  and  tonal  memory.  Frequently,  the  possessor  of  talent 
in  music  is  entirely  unaware  of  its  presence  and  therefore  may  make  no  ef- 


1  This  review  is  based  upon  C.  E.  Seashore's  Psychology  of  musical  talent  and 
numerous  articles  such  as  Recent  progress  in  the  psychology  of  musical  talent. 
Music  Teachers'  National  Conference  Proceedings,  1920.  "A  survey  of  musical 
talent  in  public  schools,"  Studies  in  Child  Welfare,  Vol.  I,  No.  2,  "Avocational 
guidance  in  music,"  Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  December,  1917,  Vol.  1,  pp. 
342-348. 


356  Department  of  Superintendence 

fort  to  develop  it.  Investigations  reveal  that  children  are  not  always  given 
music  lessons  because  they  are  gifted.  No  defense  need  be  made  for  the 
proposition  that  to  the  talented  should  go  the  opportunities  for  musical  edu- 
cation and  development. 

(b)  The  tests  show  the  magnitude  of  individual  differences.  It  is  er- 
roneously assumed  that  musical  endowments  are  fairly  equally  distributed. 
There  is  an  enormous  difference  in  the  musical  capacities  of  individuals, 
as  is  revealed  by  these  tests.  In  the  same  pitch  alone,  for  example,  it  is  the 
common  experience  of  examiners  to  find  children  in  the  average  schoolroom 
who  have  one  hundred  times  more  sensitiveness  in  this  specific  capacity  than 
the  poorer  members  of  the  class.  What  is  true  of  the  sense  of  pitch  is  true 
of  the  other  five  capacities. 

(c)  They  reveal  deficiencies  that  may  or  may  not  be  suspected.  A  child 
may  be  entirely  unaware  of  the  exact  nature  of  his  musical  make-up,  and 
discover  after  much  painful  experience  that  his  musical  disabilities  are  such 
as  to  disqualify  him  for  music  study.  This  condition  could  have  been  re- 
vealed instantly  by  testing. 

(d)  These  tests  may  reveal  ear  defects  that  may  need  immediate  atten- 
tion. The  writer's  experience  with  a  boy  in  high  school  seems  apropos.  The 
boy  was  a  violinist  and  reported  to  both  the  orchestra  and  the  harmony  class. 
He  held  a  responsible  position  in  the  orchestra  and  filled  it  capably, 
but  his  sense  of  hearing  that  originally  controlled  his  finger  movements 
was  substituted  by  kinaesthesis  and  motor  imagery.  His  intonation  was  ap- 
parently as  good  as  it  had  ever  been,  but  his  ears  were  not  functioning. 
The  test  revealed  that  his  hearing  was  equal  to  that  of  the  lowest  five  per 
cent.  A  medical  examination  followed.  Treatment  restored  the  hearing 
that  might  have  been  lost,  had  it  not  been  detected  in  its  early  stages. 

(e)  These  tests  may  aid  the  pupil  in  selecting  an  instrument.  It  often 
happens  that  a  child  gets  an  obsession  for  an  instrument  for  which  he  is  en- 
tirely unsuited  by  nature.  Such  an  undertaking  always  results  in  great  dis- 
appointment for  the  child  and  a  changed  attitude  toward  music  thereafter. 
It  is  patent  that  a  child  with  a  low  pitch  discrimination  is  disqualified 
from  studying  the  string  instruments,  where  fine  discrimination  is  con- 
stantly demanded.  This  obstacle  may  not  hinder  the  child  as  much  if  he 
can  be  persuaded  to  study  an  instrument  that  does  not  involve  so  much 
auditory  sensitivity. 

2.  Value  to  the  teacher — (a)  The  Seashore  tests  may  aid  the  teacher  in 
adapting  the  training  in  music  to  the  nature  of  the  child.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  nothing  that  the  teacher  may  attempt  to  do  can  create 
musical  talent  where  it  does  not  exist.  The  music  teacher  may  only  utilize 
it  where  it  is  found.  This  musical  axiom  does  not  seem  to  be  very  well 
understood.  It  is  as  impossible  for  the  teacher  to  create  talent  as  it  was 
for  the  alchemist  to  transmute  the  baser  metals  into  gold.  The  teacher 
should  know  the  proficiencies  and  deficiencies  of  each  child  in  order  to 
best  develop  each  individual. 


The  Third  Yearbook  357 


(b)  They  may  serve  the  teacher  as  placement  tests.  Public  school  music 
as  it  is  administered  today  is  oblivious  to  the  fact  that  all'  children  are  not 
equally  endowed,  and  often  a  bright  child  who  has  done  little  or  no  work 
is  commended  for  his  accomplishment,  whereas  the  dullard  who  has  worked 
up  to  his  highest  level  of  achievement,  but  who  has  not  attained  what  his 
more  gifted  classmate  attained,  is  roundly  censured.  The  difficulty  is  at- 
tributable to  the  fact  that  the  music  groups  are  not  homogeneous  in  respect 
to  their  capacities  or  accomplishment.  Some  way  must  be  found  to  take 
care  of  the  superior  in  music.  The  superior  child  is  often  retarded,  because 
the  music  instruction,  designed  as  it  is  to  educate  the  inferiors  in  the  class, 
is  not  sufficiently  ambitious  to  make  the  superior  work.  If  children  were 
grouped  according  to  their  innate  capacity  and  ability  to  achieve,  much 
more  progress  could  be  made  with  music  instruction  in  the  public  schools. 

(c)  These  tests  may  be  employed  by  the  teacher  as  a  check  on  what  the 
child  is  doing  and  what  the  child  is  capable  of  doing.  This  would  aid  the 
teacher  in  discovering  those  who  are  working  and  those  who  are  not  apply- 
ing themselves.  Such  a  procedure  would  aid  in  replacing  a  very  inade- 
quate system  of  grading  by  a  more  adequate  one. 

3.  Value  to  the  school — There  can  be  no  doubt  that  music  education 
can  be  facilitated  and  made  more  effectual  and  economical  by  the  employ- 
ment of  talent  and  accomplishment  tests.  We  are  in  the  midst  of  a  cam- 
paign to  universalize  musical  education.  This  campaign  gives  music  to 
larger  and  larger  numbers  of  unfit  and  tends  to  underrate  and  neglect  the 
gifted.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  writer  to  speak  disparagingly  about 
the  attempts  of  educators  to  universalize  the  teaching  of  music,  but  it  is 
necessary  to  show  that  this  movement  has  resulted  in  maladjustment  and 
great  economic  waste. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  measures  of  music  talent  be  introduced  in 
the  fifth  grade  first,  for  this  is  the  earliest  age  for  which  music  talent  test- 
ing can  be  made  satisfactorily,  and  it  is  early  enough  to  make  serious  ar- 
rangements for  a  musical  education.  The  tests  should  then  be  repeated 
again  in  the  eighth  grade,  just  before  the  great  sorting  of  children  into  vo- 
cations of  practical  life,  and  into  elective  courses  in  high  school. 

Brief  as  this  review  is,  it  nevertheless  gives  the  reader  some  idea  of  the 
scope  and  value  of  talent  testing.  Already  educators  are  beginning  to  ask  to 
Avhat  extent  the  sensory  handicaps  and  variations  of  children  should  be 
recognized  in  making  courses  of  study.  As  music  education  is  being  ad- 
ministered today,  little  or  no  attention  is  given  to  this  condition,  but  as 
educators  realize  more  and  more  the  magnitude  and  significance  of  indi- 
vidual differences,  special  courses  of  study  in  music  will  be  devised  for 
the  more  homogeneous  groups,  and  uniform  curricular  requirements  for  all 
grade  school  children  will  be  a  thing  of  the  past. 

B.  Revesz  tests — The  following  paragraphs,  taken  from  "Recent  lit- 
erature on  the  psychology  of  the  musician,"  by  Max  Schoen,1  review  the 


1  Psychological  Bulletin,  Vol.  18,  No.  9,  September,  1921. 


358  Department  of  Superintendence 

works  of   Revesz,    Schiissler,   and   Pannenborg.     These  men   have  made 
significant  contributions  to  the  psychology  of  the  musical  mind. 

"In  1913,  Revesz  made  a  preliminary  report  on  an  analysis  of  a  boy 
especially  gifted  musically,  but  it  was  not  until  1916  that  the  full  report 
appeared,  and  not  until  1920  that  he  published  an  inventory  of  musicalness 
based  on  his  study  of  the  boy  prodigy.  The  problems  with  which  Revesz 
concerns  himself  in  the  1920  study  are:  1.  Can  a  method  be  devised  which 
will  identify  the  musical  mind  before  the  beginning  of  instruction,  even  in 
cases  less  exceptional  than  that  of  the  boy  examined?  2.  Could  such  a 
method  be  applied  to  adults  and  to  the  musically  trained?  His  aim,  then, 
was  to  find  a  method  of  identifying  the  musical,  adapted  to  children  and 
adults,  and  to  the  musically  trained  and  untrained.  For  this  purpose  he 
devised  eight  tests,  based  upon  musical  and  acoustical  factors,  and  gave  these 
to  63  boys  and  girls  from  seven  to  twelve  years  of  age.  The  tests  are  as 
follows:  1.  The  rhythmic  sense.  Twelve  rhythmic  groups  were  arranged 
in  order  of  difficulty.  In  the  first  part  of  the  test  the  rhythms  were  pre- 
sented monotonically  and  the  children  were  asked  to  reproduce  the  rhythm 
with  handclaps.  In  the  second  part  of  the  test  the  same  rhythmic  forms 
were  presented  melodically  and  a  like  response  was  called  for  from  the  chil- 
dren. 2.  Absolute  pitch.  For  the  second  test  the  experimenter  sounded  a 
tone  on  the  piano  and  the  observers  were  called  upon  to  reproduce  the 
tone  on  the  instrument.  3.  Octave  recognition  and  transposition.  This 
test  Revesz  found  too  easy  for  his  observers.  4.  Relative  pitch.  He  first 
produced  an  interval  and  then  sounded  any  tone  on  the  piano  and  asked 
the  child  to  reproduce  vocally  the  given  interval,  with  the  new  tone  for  its 
basis.  5  and  6.  The  harmonic  sense.  In  these  tests  the  children  were 
asked  to  reproduce  vocally  the  constituent  tones  of  chords.  7  and  8. 
Melodic  memory  and  playing  by  ear.  The  seventh  test  deals  with  memory 
for  melody,  and  the  eighth  with  the  ability  to  play  by  ear  a  known  tune. 

"Revesz  assumed  the  vocal  reproduction  of  a  melody  to  have  the  greatest 
diagnostic  value,  and  by  correlating  the  other  tests  with  the  seventh  test, 
he  concluded  that  the  sense  of  rhythm  does  not  possess  great  musical 
significance,  but  that  the  spontaneous  instrumental  reproduction  of  a  known 
melody,  absolute  pitch,  vocal  transposition  of  an  interval,  and  also  the 
ability  to  analyze  simultaneous  intervals,  are  characteristic  manifestations 
of  musicalness.  Revesz's  investigation  has  two  great  merits — his  inventory 
has  an  empirical  basis,  and  his  test  material  has  musical  significance.  The 
number  of  his  observers  was  too  small,  however,  for  the  establishment  of 
norms. 

"In  his  study  on  the  earliest  appearance  of  talent,  Revesz  claims  that 
musical  talent  necessarily  makes  its  appearance  in  early  youth;  at  first 
appears  technical  equipment,  or  virtuosity,  later,  power  of  interpretation, 
and  then  creative  power.  An  examination  of  the  great  composers  shows 
that  the  full  development  of  the  creative  powers  is  reached '  between  the 
twentieth  and  thirtieth  years. 


The  Third  Yearbook  359 


"Several  briefer  studies  are  available  that  help  to  throw  light  upon 
specific  factors  in  the  more  extensive  treatments  of  Revesz  and  Seashore. 
Schiissler  attempts  to  account  for  the  unmusical  child  in  a  paper  based  upon 
historical  and  statistical  material.  In  the  first  part  of  the  paper,  he  reviews 
briefly  the  works  of  Billroth,  Max  Meyer,  Stumpf,  Von  Meyer,  Rupp, 
Revesz,  and  several  others,  as  well  as  the  contributions  of  the  anatomical 
and  physiological  bases  of  musicalness.  His  own  contribution  consists  of 
a  statistical  examination  of  two  hundred  unmusical  children,  the  criterion 
for  unmusicalness  being  attainment  of  a  certain  grade  in  school  singing. 
Schiissler's  conclusions,  based  upon  the  historical  review  and  his  statistical 
data,  are  as  follows:  1.  There  are  between  five  and  ten  per  cent  of  un- 
musical people.  The  majority  of  the  unmusical,  if  not  all,  are  not  beyond 
profiting  by  musical  instruction,  and  should,  therefore,  not  be  neglected, 
but  rather  given  well-planned  and  intensive  instruction.  2.  For  musical 
or  unmusical  capacity,  interval  memory  is  of  greatest  significance.  3. 
Absolute  pitch  is  of  significance  only  for  outstanding  musical  gift.  The 
unmusical,  as  compared  with  the  musical,  are  as  a  whole  less  gifted  than 
the  musical,  i.e.,  they  are  not  only  inferior  musically,  but  also  in  other 
mental  capacities.  4,  Forty-one  per  cent  of  the  unmusical,  fifty-seven  per 
cent  of  the  half  musical,  and  seventy-nine  per  cent  of  the  musical,  make 
satisfactory  progress  in  school.  The  school  work  of  the  musical  is  fifteen 
per  cent  superior  to  that  of  the  unmusical. 

"Schiissler's  findings  on  the  relation  between  intelligence  and  musical- 
ness are  in  accord  with  those  of  Stumpf,  who  found  that  musical  children 
are,  as  a  whole,  better  students  than  the  unmusical. 

"The  Pannenborgs  examined  3860  children,  423  musicians,  and  the 
biographies  of  twenty-one  composers  in  an  attempt  to  derive  the  intellectual 
and  emotional  characteristics  of  the  musician.  Their  conclusions  agree 
with  those  of  Schiissler  and  Stumpf.  Of  all  the  children,  342  boys  and  152 
girls  were  designated  as  musical.  The  musical  children  were  advanced  in 
their  school  work  beyond  their  years,  while  the  musician  was  found  to  have 
extensive  intellectual  interests  and  to  be  widely  gifted,  particularly  in 
languages,  literature,  history,  geography,  mathematics,  natural  history,  and 
drawing." 

II.  Rhythm  and  Training 

Great  interest  has  been  shown  recently  in  rhythmic  training.  For  years 
it  had  no  place  whatever  in  our  schools,  but  now  it  is  being  stressed  by  most 
music  teachers  and  supervisors,  as  being  basic.  Music,  they  claim,  must  be 
approached  through  rhythm.  Dalcroze  believes  that  an  individual  may  be 
made  musical  by  rhythmic  training.  Absurd  as  this  claim  is,  it  is  shared  by 
many  music  educators.  But  does  rhythmic  training  improve  one's  sense  of 
rhythm?  This  question  can  be  answered  only  by  experimental  investiga- 
tion. In  1923,  Miss  Naomi  Klauer  undertook  to  study  the  effect  of 
training  on  the  sense  of  rhythm.1     The  Seashore  Rhythm  Test  was  given 


The  effect  of  training  in  rhythm  upon  rhythmic  discrimination  in  the   inter- 
mediate grades,  Thesis,  State  University  of  Iowa. 


360  Department  of  Superintendence 

to  seventy-five  children  in  grades  four,  five,  and  six.  This  was  followed  by 
intensive  rhythmic  drill  for  a  period  of  two  months,  in  which  every  defen- 
sible rhythmic  device  was  used. 

Such  exercises  as  marching  to  music ;  beating  time,  by  swinging  the  arms 
synchronously  with  a  beat ;  breathing  in  such  a  way  as  to  maintain  a  con- 
currence between  beats  and  inhalation  of  breath ;  clapping  the  hands  so  as 
to  give  the  child  tactual,  kinaesthetic,  auditory  and  visual  experience ;  tap- 
ping out  some  of  the  actual  rhythms  found  in  the  rhythm  test;  rhythmic 
exercises  in  discrimination ;  these  and  many  more  were  used  in  an  attempt 
to  give  the  child  as  rich  an  experience  in  rhythm  as  could  be  afforded.  The 
average  gain  in  the  second  scores  over  the  first  was  found  to  be  3.4  per 
cent. 

Seventy-five  intermediate  grade  school  children  in  another  school  were 
tested  twice  in  a  period  of  three  days  without  any  intervening  rhythmic 
training  in  order  to  ascertain  the  maximal  effect  of  improvement  due  to 
the  repetition  of  the  test  alone.  The  average  gain  for  these  three  grades 
was  found  to  be  3.9  per  cent. 

Miss  Klauer  concludes  that  "this  capacity  is  relatively  fixed.  The  chil- 
dren remained  substantially  where  they  were,  in  spite  of  the  intensive 
rhythmic  drill  to  which  they  were  subjected.  In  this  sense,  as  in  the 
other  basic  music  senses,  the  music  educator  must  be  cognizant  of  the  extent 
and  magnitude  of  individual  differences.  Furthermore,  the  teacher  must 
know  definitely  the  amount  of  the  capacity  possessed  by  each  child  and 
devise  a  program  of  procedure  that  will  make  it  possible  for  each  child  and 
realize  all  that  he  can  on  the  rhythmic  endowment  he  possesses." 

A.  Rhythm  and  Past  Musical  Training 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  influence  of  past  training,  on  the  sense  of  rhythm, 
DeGraff x  measured  464  university  sophomores,  part  of  whom  had  had 
training  and  part  of  whom  had  had  no  training.  Each  individual  was 
asked  to  record  the  number  of  half  hour  lessons  he  had  taken  in  music. 
The  scores  of  the  trained  were  then  correlated  with  the  scores  of  the 
untrained  in  an  attempt  to  show  statistically  the  influence  of  music  train- 
ing. The  Seashore  Rhythm  Test  was  used  in  this  study.  The  mean  of 
the  trained  scores  was  found  to  be  75.50  while  the  mean  of  the  untrained 
group  was  75.51,  which  gives  the  trained  group  no  advantage.  That  is, 
the  sense  of  rhythm  is  more  or  less  innate.  Those  who  have  it  may  utilize 
it  in  their  music  study,  but  those  who  are  devoid  of  any  great  amount  of  it 
do  not  acquire  it  by  training. 

III.  Musical  Accomplishment  Testing2 

The  Kwalwasser-Ruch  musical  accomplishment  test — This  test  was  de- 
vised last  year  by  the  writer  in  collaboration  with   Professor  Giles  M. 

1  DeGraff,  Mrs.  L.  H.  Norms  on  the  sensitiveness  to  rhythm,  Thesis,  State  Uni- 
versity of  Iowa.  , 

Kwalwasser,  J.  "Scientific  tests  and  measurements  applied  to  music,"  Music 
Supervisors  Journal,  May,  1924. 


The  Third  Yearbook  361 


Ruch.  This  test  measures  musical  knowledge  acquired  from  the  fourth  to 
the  twelfth  grade  inclusive.  A  thorough  analysis  was  made  of  the  most 
representative  courses  of  study  in  music  in  the  United  States,  in  order  to 
ascertain  the  nature  of  the  material  to  be  included  in  such  a  test.  Ten 
subjects  were  derived  from  the  analysis  of  these  courses  of  study,  and  a 
test  measuring  each  formulated.    They  are : 

1.  Knowledge  of  musical  symbols  and  terms. 

2.  Recognition  of  syllable  names  from  the  staff  notation. 

3.  Detection  of  pitch  errors  in  the  notation  of  a  familiar  melody. 

4.  Recognition  of  time  errors  in  the  notation  of  a  familiar  melody. 

5.  Knowledge  of  pitch  or  letter  names  of  base  and  treble  notes. 

6.  Knowledge  of  time  signatures. 

7.  Knowledge  of  principal  major  and  minor  keys. 

8.  Knowledge  of  note  values  and  their  symbols. 

9.  Knowledge  of  rest  values  and  their  symbols. 

10.  Recognition  of  ten  familiar  melodies  from  the  notation  alone. 

All  of  the  accomplishment  tests  in  music  are  group  tests  and  as  such 
furnish  us  with  a  convenient  method  of  ascertaining  what  has  been 
achieved  in  music  by  the  individual,  the  grade,  or  the  school  as  compared 
with  other  individuals,  grades,  and  schools.  The  author  states  that  the 
standardized  test  is,  at  the  present  time,  one  of  the  best  aids  the  music 
teacher  can  employ  to  raise  the  standards  of  school  music. 

What  constitutes  sixth-grade  achievement  in  music?  How  does  sixth- 
grade  differ  from  fifth  or  eighth  grade  achievement  ?  Is  fifth-grade  achieve- 
ment in  music  the  same  all  over  the  United  States  or  do  we  find  what  is 
achieved  in  the  fifth  grade  in  one  school  attained  in  the  third  grade  else- 
where? These  questions  and  many  others  may  be  answered  by  applying 
a  reliable  test  to  the  different  grades.  With  the  aid  of  norms,  the  music 
supervisor  may  easily  discover  how  her  particular  group  compares  with 
groups  of  the  same  age  and  grade  elsewhere  and,  by  the  same  token,  whether 
the  instruction  she  is  giving  is  superior  or  inferior  to  that  given  elsewhere. 
Scores  of  a  reliable  test  have  definite  meaning  and  permit  of  definite  com- 
parisons. Those  needing  special  training  may  be  discovered  and  weak 
points  in  the  music  course  detected.  Remedial  methods  may  then  be  applied 
in  an  effort  to  bring  the  music  work  up  to  the  level  of  attainment  indicated 
by  the  norms. 

Accomplishment  tests  1  may  help  to  improve  the  standards  of  music  and 
music  instruction  in  our  schools.  They  show  objectively  both  progress  and 
retardation.  They  aid  the  teacher  in  giving  her  adequate  knowledge  of 
what  the  individuals  have  accomplished.  Above  all,  the  exceptional  student 
may  be  discovered  and  given  an  opportunity  to  develop  commensurate  with 
his  endowments.  It  is  to  the  credit  of  the  music  educators  of  this  country 
that  they  are  encouraging  and  fostering  scientific  testing  in  their  subject. 


1  Other  music  accomplishment  tests,  now  available,  are  the  Beach,  Mosher,  Gil* 
dersleve,  Torgerson,   and   Hutchinson. 


362  Department  of  Superintendence 

B.  Sight-singing  Testing 

Early  last  year,  a  sight-singing  test  by  E.  K.  Hillbrand,  professor  of  edu- 
cation, Dakota  Wesleyan  University,  appeared  which  was  the  first  attempt 
to  measure  objectively,  the  ability  of  the  intermediate  grade  school  child  to 
translate  musical  symbols  into  sounds.  This  test  attempts  not  only  to  deter- 
mine one's  proficiency  as  a  sight-singer  but  also  to  diagnose  difficulties  in  the 
deficient  performance.  The  test  is  an  individual  test,  for  according  to  the 
author  "group  tests  in  sight-singing  are  impracticable." 

The  test  contains  six  short  songs.  The  pupil  is  permitted  to  study  the 
songs  a  few  minutes  and  then  is  asked  to  sing  them,  without  any  help  or 
accompaniment.  Each  pupil  is  tested  singly  in  a  quiet  room.  The  various 
errors  made  by  the  pupil  while  singing  are  recorded  on  a  copy  of  the  songs. 

Aside  from  the  fact  that  this  test  is  an  individual  one  and  requires  too 
much  time  to  give,  it  is  difficult  to  score.  This  test,  however,  does  suggest 
a  procedure  that  is  important  for  the  future  of  public  school  music.  Sight- 
singing  is  a  most  important  part  of  the  music  course,  yet  this  is  the  first 
attempt  to  measure  objectively  sight-singing  proficiency.  It  is  conceivable 
that  within  the  next  few  years  a  number  of  good  group  sight-singing  tests 
will  be  produced. 

C.  Music  Appreciation  Testing 

Probably  the  most  elusive  trait  to  measure  is  one's  appreciation  of  music 
No  one  has  yet  succeeded  in  measuring  the  aesthetic  response  to  music 
successfully.  Two  Courtis  Standard  Research  Tests  on  music  attempt  to 
measure  one's  ability  to  associate  experimental  facts  with  music — an  ability 
which  may  be  entirely  foreign  to  genuine  music  appreciation.  The  first 
test  measures  one's  ability  to  associate  life  activities  with  music  in  which  the 
rhythm  predominates,  and  is  incorrectly  called  "Recognition  of  Charac- 
teristic Rhythms."  The  second  test  measures  one's  ability  to  recognize 
"Mood  from  Melody."  It  has  long  been  a  fad  in  teaching  music  apprecia- 
tion, to  give  every  composition  presented  in  the  course,  a  program.  Many 
of  these  programs  are  manufactured  for  the  occasion  and  have  no  integral 
relationship  to  the  music  presented.  This  method  may  stimulate  the 
imagination,  but  it  evokes  a  response  that  may  be  extraneous  to  the  in- 
tention of  the  composer.  The  ability  to  describe  or  name  a  composition  is 
no  index  of  one's  appreciation  of  music. 

Under  the  title  "Scales  for  Measuring  Judgment  of  Orchestral  Music," 
M.  R.  Trabue  reports  an  interesting  investigation  on  musical  "taste."1  Mr. 
Mohler  planned  the  investigation  and  completed  the  field  work  in  1920. 
Phonograph  records  of  sixteen  different  musical  compositions  were  used. 
The  "relative  merits  of  these  compositions  were  judged  by  expert  musicians 
and  other  intelligent  adults,  and  each  composition  was  assigned  a  numerical 
value  designating  its  comparative  worth.     The  test  was  administered  in 


1  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  December,  1923. 


The  Third  Yearbook  363 


such  a  manner  that  the  individuals  detecting  the  smallest  differences  in 
general  merit  received  the  highest  scores. 

The  most  significant  finding  of  this  study  was  "that  the  characteristics 
measured  by  these  tests  are  easily  improved  by  training.  There  seems  to 
be  an  unusually  large  opportunity  for  improvement  of  taste  for  orchestral 
music  through  musical  training  and  experience.  In  almost  every  case,  the 
group  that  received  training  increased  its  median  score  ten  or  more  times 
as  much  as  the  untrained  group. 

In  concluding  this  report,  Trabue  presents  statistical  evidence  on  the  rela- 
tionship of  ability  measured  by  these  scales,  and  general  academic  ability. 
The  coefficient  of  correlation  between  the  musical  judgment  scores  and  the 
mental  ability  scores,  based  on  39  cases  was  only  .16,  although  the  quad- 
rant of  the  correlation,  table  indicating  low  academic  ability  and  high 
musical  judgment,  contained  but  one  individual.  He  concludes,  therefore, 
that  one  must  have  a  sufficient  amount  of  academic  ability  to  make  70  points 
on  the  Miller  ability  test  before  he  can  learn  to  judge  orchestral  music 
successfully,  but  that  high  general  academic  ability  does  not  at  all  imply 
high  ability  to  judge  orchestral  music. 

While  the  results  of  this  study  are  significant  in  themselves,  the  impor- 
tant contribution  of  this  investigation  is  in  its  method  of  attacking  a  most 
difficult  problem,  that  of  aesthetic  response. 

IV.  Curriculum  Practices  in  Junior  High  School  and  Grades  5  and  61 

This  authoritative  work  covers  the  curriculum  practices  of  fourteen  edu- 
cational centers.  No  effort  was  made  to  test  the  results  achieved  in  the 
fourteen  school  systems.  The  report  arrives  at  one  perfectly  clear  conclu- 
sion— namely,  that  "the  periods  of  time  devoted  in  various  school  systems 
to  a  given  subject  of  instruction  and  to  sub-divisions  of  that  subject  are  im- 
pressively different.  The  scientific  determination  of  the  results  of  teaching 
is  leading  in  all  of  these  centers  to  a  scientific  evaluation  of  the  materials 
of  instruction.  A  scientific  analysis  of  the  materials  of  teaching  must  in 
turn  lead  to  an  analysis  of  the  objectives  of  instruction.  If  objectives  are 
to  be  scientifically  established,  they  must  be  based  upon  a  scientific  study 
of  the  needs  of  pupils  as  revealed  in  modern  society  and  of  the  skills,  abili- 
ties and  attitudes  conditioning  useful  citizenship." 

In  averaging  the  number  of  minutes  a  week  allotted  to  each  constant  by 
the  fourteen  school  systems,  it  appears  that  less  time  is  spent  on  music  than 
on  any  other  junior  high  school  subject.  Seventy  minutes  is  spent  on  music 
in  the  seventh,  sixty-seven  in  the  eighth  and  seventy-three  in  the  ninth 
grade.  The  average  proportional  allotment  of  the  school  week  to  the  con- 
stants of  the  curriculum  in  the  fourteen  school  systems  for  the  junior  high 
school  reveals  that  only  4.3  per  cent  of  the  school  time  is  devoted  to  music 


1  Glass,   J.   M.      Supplementary   Educational      Monographs,    No.   25,    November. 
1924,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 


364  Department  of  Superintendence 

in  the  seventh  grade,  4.0  per  cent  in  the  eighth  and  4.4  per  cent  in  the  ninth 
grade. 

How  to  make  a  curriculum}  by  Franklin  Bobbitt,  contains  much  evidence 
of  a  tendency  to  ascertain  the  social  values  of  music.  "Music  electives  are, 
therefore,  entering  the  program  of  studies  as  club  activities,  as  major  elec- 
tives in  a  fine  arts  curriculum,  and  as  electives  supplementary  to  other 
major  electives  or  as  additional  enrichment  courses  for  pupils  who  can 
carry  extra  work.  The  important  socializing  effect  of  the  expansion  of 
music  courses,  both  required  and  elective,  should  be  recalled  in  an  evalua- 
tion of  the  development." 

V.  Sixth  Grade  Achievement 

At  the  fourteenth  annual  meeting  of  the  Music  Supervisors'  National 
Conference  held  in  St.  Joseph,  Missouri,  1921,  members  of  the  Educa- 
tional Council  submitted  a  standard  course  of  study  for  graded  schools. 
This  course  was  formulated  for  the  "good  or  average  school  representing 
an  easily  attainable  and  a  desirable  ideal  for  all  schools."  This  course  re- 
ceived the  unanimous  endorsement  of  the  members  of  the  Council  after  it 
had  been  "thoroughly  analyzed,  section  by  section,  phrase  by  phrase,  word 
by  word."  The  purpose  of  the  course  was  to  direct  the  attention  of  edu- 
cators to  standards  of  attainments  toward  which  the  music  work  in  schools 
generally  should  go. 

Attainments  to  be  realized,  year  by  year,  are  to  be  found  at  the  end  of 
each  school  grade.  At  the  end  of  the  sixth  year,  which  "marks  the  close 
of  the  primary  period,  and  the  end  of  the  sensory  and  associative  stages  in 
the  child's  life,"  the  Council  recommends  eight  definite  attainments. 
Seven  of  these  attainments  were  made  the  basis  of  a  series  of  investiga- 
tions, undertaken  by  Miss  Estelle  Windhorst.2  This  research  was  made 
possible  by  the  generous  grant  of  a  fellowship  to  the  State  University  of 
Iowa  by  the  Julliard  Musical  Foundation  of  New  York  City.  Objective 
measurements  were  devised  and  applied  to  each  of  the  seven  attainments 
formulated  by  the  Council,  in  an  effort  to  ascertain  the  feasibility,  and  the 
extent  to  which  each  is  being  realized.  Five  large  cities,  highly  distinguished 
for  their  public  school  music  work,  were  used  in  making  this  study. 

First  attainment — This  attainment  recommended  by  the  Council  for  the 
sixth  grade  is  that  "every  child  shall  have  acquired  the  use  of  his  singing 
voice  and  pleasure  in  song  as  a  means  of  expression."  This  attainment  was 
not  reached  by  all  cities.  While  it  is  probably  true  that  most  children  de- 
rive pleasure  from  singing,  to  other  children  it  was  plainly  an  irritant. 
Many  children  showed  utter  indifference  in  singing,  revealing  that  their 


1  Bobbitt,  Franklin.  Hoiv  to  make  a  curriculum.  Boston:  Houghton  Mifflin 
Co.,  1924. 

2  A  Study  of  the  Sixth-Grade  Attainments  Stated  in  the  Standard  Course  of 
Study  adopted  by  the  Music  Supervisors  National  Conference  in  1921.  To  be 
published  in  the  University  of  Iowa  Studies  in  Psychology.     Vol.  IX. 


The  Third  Yearbook  365 


musical  imagination  or  emotion  had  not  been  aroused.  Monotones  were 
found,  showing  that  there  was  a  small  percentage  of  children  in  the  sixth 
grade  who  had  not  acquired  "the  use  of  their  singing  voices."  It  might  be 
added  that  all  children  were  measured  and  rated  on  accuracy  in  intonation 
and  sustaining  the  pitch.  The  examiner  concludes  that  this  attainment 
may  be  feasible,  but  is  not  realized  by  all. 

Second  attainment — "Every  child  shall  have  acquired  a  repertoire  of 
songs  which  may  be  carried  into  the  home  and  social  life,  including 
"America"  and  the  "Star-Spangled  Banner."  The  measurement  of  some 
500  children  show  that  those  who  have  found  their  singing  voice  were  able 
to  sing  "America"  and  on  the  whole  quite  accurately,  but  to  the  great  sur- 
prise of  the  examiner,  "Silent  Night"  was  even  more  universally  known 
from  memory.  Due  to  its  difficulty  and  unnatural  range,  "The  Star- 
Spangled  Banner"  was  sung  well  only  by  children  with  exceptional  voices. 
Many  children  were  afraid  to  attempt  it  at  all,  and  it  was  sung  very  in- 
accurately by  the  larger  number  who  tried  it.  Songs  learned  in  previous 
years  and  not  frequently  reviewed  were  sung  inaccurately  either  rhyth- 
mically or  melodically.  While  this  aim  is  feasible,  it,  too,  is  not  being 
generally  achieved.  Some  school  systems  stress  repertoire  songs,  while 
others  neglect  this  phase  of  music  instruction  almost  entirely. 

Third  attainment — "Every  child  shall  have  developed  the  aural  power 
to  know  by  sound  that  which  he  knows  by  sight  and  vice  versa."  This  at- 
tainment is  apparently  too  difficult.  Less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  children 
measured  could  recognize  "The  Star  Spangled  Banner"  from  notation; 
only  18  per  cent  could  recognize  "Silent  Night"  by  sound.  A  distorted 
version  of  "America"  was  presented  to  the  children  in  which  five  measures 
were  wrong  melodically.  Only  9  per  cent  of  the  486  sixth  grade  children 
measured  could  detect  all  the  wrong  measures;  21  per  cent  were  able  to 
detect  four  wrong  measures.  "America,"  probably  the  best-known  song 
both  by  sight  and  sound,  revealed  how  few  children  have  attained  this 
ability. 

Fourth  attainment — "Every  child  shall  have  the  ability  to  sing  at  sight, 
using  words,  a  unison  song  of  hymn  tune  grade,  and  the  easiest  three-part 
songs ;  these  to  be  in  any  key ;  to  include  any  of  the  measures  and  rhythms 
in  ordinary  use ;  to  contain  any  accidental  signs  and  tones  easily  introduced ; 
and  in  general  to  be  of  the  grade  of  difficulty  of  folk  songs  such  as  the 
"Minstrel  Boy"  ;  also  knowledge  of  the  major  and  minor  keys  and  their 
signatures."  Forming  a  tonal  image  from  a  notational  symbol  is  a  basic 
skill  in  sight-singing.  Test  I  of  the  Kwalwasser-Ruch  Accomplishment 
Test  measures  one's  knowledge  of  musical  terms  and  symbols.  It  consists 
of  twenty-five  items.  The  mean  score  of  the  children  measured  13.  Evi- 
dently, many  of  the  most  common  symbols  and  terms  are  not  understood  by 
sixth-grade  pupils.  The  chromatics  give  children  most  trouble.  The 
knowledge  of  key  and  time  signatures  is  not  noticeably  acquired.  The 
minor  key  signatures  are  hopelessly  beyond  the  sixth-grade  child,  if  we  may 
depend  upon  the  results  of  this  investigation. 


366  Department  of  Superintendence 

Fifth  attainment — "Every  child  talented  in  musical  performance  shall 
have  opportunity  for  its  cultivation."  This  attainment  is  both  desirable 
and  practicable.  Most  schools  encourage  participation  in  choruses,  orches- 
tras and  bands.  The  talented  are  thus  afforded  an  opportunity  to  develop 
their  musicianship. 

Sixth  attainment — "The  children  shall  have  developed  a  love  for  the 
beautiful  in  music  and  taste  in  choosing  their  songs  and  the  music  to  which 
they  listen  for  the  enjoyment  and  pleasure  which  only  good  music  can  give." 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  this  attainment  is  very  difficult  to  measure,  it  is, 
nevertheless,  a  most  important  one. 

Seventh  attainment — "The  children  shall  have  acquired  the  ability  to 
appreciate  the  charm  of  design  in  songs  sung;  to  give  an  account  of  the 
salient  features  of  structure  in  a  standard  composition  after  a  few  hearings 
of  it;  to  identify  at  least  the  three-part  song  form  from  hearing;  and  to 
recognize  and  give  titles  and  composers  of  a  reasonable  number  of  standard 
vocal  and  instrumental  compositions."  Only  one  item  of  this  attainment 
was  measured,  namely  "the  recognition  of  standard  vocal  and  instrumental 
compositions."  In  this  less  than  half  of  the  children  came  up  to  this  stand- 
ard formulated  by  the  educational  council. ' 

This  survey  of  five  schools  which  are  far  above  the  average  in  musical 
attainment,  shows  the  difficulty  of  realizing  some  of  the  attainments  of  the 
standard  course  of  study.  It  demonstrates  the  ease  with  which  the  "intan- 
gible" subjects  of  music  may  be  measured  objectively.  It  suggests  a  new 
method  of  procedure  for  making  public  school  music  surveys.  It  reveals 
the  shortcomings  of  our  present  efforts  to  make  music  more  effective  and 
more  influential  in  the  lives  of  our  children.  It  aids  the  music  educator  in 
applying  the  remedial  measures  necessary  to  improve  both  the  teaching  and 
the  content  of  the  subject. 

Before  concluding  this  report,  a  word  concerning  the  future  studies  in 
public  school  music  seems  apropos.  The  arts  are  not  easily  subjected  to  the 
experimental  procedure.  Yet  it  is  unlikely  that  music  will  be  systematically 
and  efficiently  taught  without  the  application  of  the  experimental  pro- 
cedure. The  results  already  obtained  more  than  warrant  the  expenditure 
of  time  and  money  on  refining  the  methodology  of  music  teaching.  Finally, 
it  promises  to  give  to  music  education,  a  science  of  music  pedagogy. 


ANNUAL  REPORT  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE 
SECRETARY 

Cincinnati  Meeting,  1925 

To  the  President,  Executive  Committee,  and  Members  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Superintendence: 

In  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  constitution,  adopted  at  the 
Chicago  convention  in  1922,  the  third  annual  report  of  the  activities  of  the 
Department  of  Superintendence  is  presented  herewith.  It  covers  the  period 
from  January  1,  1924,  to  December  31,  1924. 

The  year  in  review — The  1924  convention  in  Chicago,  which  empha- 
sized "Next  Forward  Steps  in  American  Education,"  set  a  high  standard 
of  constructive  thinking.  Small  topic  group  meetings  replaced  two  general 
sessions  and  provided  unusual  opportunity  for  intimate  discussion  of  im- 
portant problems.  Chicago  is  handicapped  by  lack  of  a  convenient  ex- 
hibit hall.  The  plan  of  locating  the  exhibits  in  hotel  rooms  does  not  well 
adapt  itself  to  our  needs.  The  second  Yearbook,  which  reviewed  current 
elementary  school  curriculum  practice,  was  distributed  to  members  at  Chi- 
cago.    An  official  report  of  the  convention  proceedings  was  issued  in  May. 

The  preparation  of  the  1925  Yearbook  has  been  under  the  direction  of 
the  Commission  on  the  Curriculum.  The  appointment  of  this  Commission 
was  authorized  by  vote  of  the  Department  in  1923,  at  Cleveland.  The 
Commission  met  in  Washington,  June  30,  and  determined  to  collect  and 
review  research  studies  in  the  field  of  the  elementary  school  curriculum. 
The  Division  of  Research  of  the  National  Education  Association  under- 
took active  responsibility  for  this  task.  Dr.  Margaret  M.  Alltucker,  as- 
sistant director  of  the  division  of  research,  secured  much  valuable  material 
and  assistance  in  the  course  of  a  series  of  conferences  with  curriculum 
specialists  in  Columbus,  Chicago,  New  York,  Pittsburgh,  Iowa  City,  Den- 
ver, California,  and  elsewhere.  At  a  second  meeting,  held  October  23  and 
24,  the  Commission  outlined  a  comprehensive  plan  of  cooperative  effort  for 
curriculum  reconstruction,  with  a  view  to  its  consideration  and  adoption 
at  the  Cincinnati  convention.  Many  people  have  contributed  liberally  of 
time  and  effort  in  the  preparation  of  the  1925  Yearbook.  Especial  atten- 
tion is  called  to  the  twelve  sub-committees  listed  at  the  beginning  of  Part 
III.    Without  their  assistance,  this  volume  would  have  been  impossible. 

The  Research  Bulletin  of  the  National  Education  Association  has  been 
mailed  to  all  members  of  this  Department  during  the  year.  These  bulletins 
have  dealt  with  teachers'  salaries,  retirement  laws,  the  curriculum,  tenure, 
and  facts  on  the  public  school  for  American  Education  Week.  It  was 
originally  intended  to  issue  a  Quarterly  of  the  Department  of  Superintend- 
ence, but  on  further  consideration  it  seemed  better  to  adopt  a  program  of 
cooperation,  thereby  securing  for  our  members  the  excellent  publications  of 
the  Division  of  Research. 

[367] 


368  Department  of  Superintendence 

A  small  beginning  has  been  made  with  the  Educational  Research  Service, 
which  was  authorized  two  years  ago.  Forty  cities  are  enrolled  thus  far. 
Subscribers  are  furnished  with  printed  or  multigraphed  copies  of  recent 
educational  studies,  information  is  secured  in  response  to  individual  in- 
quiries, special  tabulations  are  made  involving  problems,  such  as  teachers' 
salaries,  and  an  effort  is  being  made  to  assist  subscribers  in  solving  the 
questionnaire  evil.  On  account  of  the  newness  of  the  venture  and  the 
meagerness  of  our  staff,  only  enough  subscriptions  were  solicited  to  afford 
a  fair  test  of  the  undertaking.  If  all  goes  well,  a  much  greater  number  can 
be  accepted  next  year. 

The  executive  committee — The  Executive  Committee  consists  of  seven 
members.  The  president  and  the  first  and  second  vice  presidents  are  mem- 
bers ex-officio  and  are  chosen  annually.  Four  members  chosen  by  election, 
hold  office  for  terms  of  four  years,  one  member  retiring  each  year.  Three 
meetings  of  the  Executive  Committee  were  held  during  1924,  the  first  be- 
ing in  Chicago  on  February  24.  Members  present  were  Superintendents 
Smith,  Beveridge,  Clark,  Cody,  Condon,  Ballou  and .  Mc Andrew.  Busi- 
ness transacted  included  approval  of  appointments  for  the  Audit  Commit- 
tee, Resolutions  Committee,  Tellers  and  Yearbook  Committee.  It  was 
voted  to  contract  for  copies  of  the  Research  Bulletin  of  the  National  Edu- 
cation Association,  to  be  mailed  to  all  members  of  the  Department,  and  to 
abandon  the  plan  for  the  proposed  Quarterly  of  the  Department  of  Super- 
intendence. In  a  resolution  Dr.  Randall  J.  Condon  was  commended  for  his 
excellent  work  in  conducting  the  building  exhibits  at  the  last  two  conven- 
tions. 

The  Executive  Committee  met  again  in  the  Auditorium  Theater,  Chi- 
cago, Thursday  afternoon,  February  28.  All  members  were  present.  The 
Executive  Secretary  was  authorized  to  pay  convention  bills  when  approved 
by  the  retiring  president.  The  vacancy  caused  in  the  membership  of  the 
Executive  Committee  by  the  election  of  William  McAndrew  as  president 
of  the  Department,  was  filled  by  the  appointment  for  the  unexpired  term 
of  Frank  D.  Boynton,  superintendent  of  schools,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

The  third  meeting  of  the  Executive  Committee  was  held  in  the  Gibson 
Hotel,  Cincinnati,  Saturday,  April  26.  Members  present  were  Super- 
intendents McAndrew,  Maddox,  Condon,  Ballou,  Clark,  and  Boynton. 
The  first  vice  president,  Payson  Smith,  was  absent  on  account  of  illness. 
The  budget  for  the  year  1924  was  submitted  and  adopted.  It  showed  esti- 
mated income  of  $16,000,  and  estimated  expenditure  of  $15,995.81.  Ap- 
plications from  various  organizations  for  recognition  in  connection  with 
the  winter  meeting  were  received,  and  on  motion,  the  Executive  Secretary 
was  instructed  to  advise  the  officers  of  all  such  organizations  that  the  De- 
partment of  Superintendence  regretted  its  inability  to  secure  the  necessary 
hotel  and  other  accommodations  for  additional  groups.  The  publication  in 
the  Educational  Review  of  suitable  articles  and  news  items  was  authorized. 

Mr.  Edwin  C.  Broome,  chairman  of  the  Commission  on  the  Curriculum, 


The  Third  Yearbook  369 


was  present  and  reported  progress.  Following  a  discussion  of  the  magni- 
tude of  the  undertaking,  the  following  resolution  was  adopted : 

"The  executive  committee  approves  the  suggestion  that  paid  experts  and  clerical 
assistance  be  secured  to  aid  the  Commission,  provided  funds  for  the  purpose  can 
be  secured.  Inasmuch  as  no  funds  are  available,  a  donation  will  be  welcomed, 
with  the  understanding  that  the  Department  be  entirely  free  to  act  as  it  sees  fit." 

In  behalf  of  the  Commission  on  the  Curriculum,  grateful  acknowledg- 
ment is  made  to  the  Carnegie  Corporation  for  $5000,  made  available  in 
accordance  with  the  above  resolution  for  payment  of  travelling  expenses 
and  clerical  service. 

The  Executive  Secretary  reported  that  a  vote  of  members  of  the  Depart- 
ment on  the  question  of  time  and  place  of  the  winter  meeting  had  been 
taken  by  mail.  The  number  who  voted  for  the  present  date,  during  the 
last  week  of  February,  was  1232,  while  281  asked  for  a  change.  To  the 
question,  "Would  you  wish  to  have  the  Department  meet  in  the  same  city 
each  year,"  578  voted  "Yes"  and  1216  voted  "No."  For  the  1925  Con- 
vention, a  great  majority  favored  a  city  in  the  Middle  West,  preferably  one 
in  which  the  Convention  had  not  been  held  recently.  The  Executive 
Committee  thereupon  considered  invitations  for  the  1925  Convention. 
After  a  recess  for  the  purpose  of  visiting  the  Cincinnati  Music  Hall  and 
hotels,  Cincinnati  was  selected  as  the  convention  city. 

Financial  statement — The  budget  allotments  adopted  by  the  Executive 
Committee  have  been  closely  observed.  The  income  exceeded  the  estimates 
by  $1,637.93.  The  expenditures  were  $589.74  less  than  the  budget  allow- 
ance, thus  making  the  balance  at  the  close  of  the  year  over  $2,000  more 
than  at  its  beginning. 

The  principal  source  of  revenue  is  the  $5  annual  membership  fee. 
Twelve  hundred  and  sixty-three  members  were  enrolled  for  1922,  1650  for 

1923,  and  2136  for  1924.  We  have  set  our  goal  for  1925  at  3000  members. 
By  1926  this  should  be  increased  to  4000,  since  there  are  at  least  that  many 
eligible  persons  who  attend  the  conventions  more  or  less  regularly. 

By  agreement  with  the  National  Education  Association,  the  net  income 
from  the  commercial  exhibits  at  the  winter  meetings  is  divided  equally  be- 
tween the  Department  and  the  parent  association,  each  organization  thus 
deriving  funds  for  convention  expenses.  The  active  work  of  organizing  and 
managing  the  exhibit  is  done  by  the  Business  Division  of  the  National  Edu- 
cation Association. 

Other  income  was  received  from  the  sale  of  Yearbooks,  which  was  un- 
expectedly large,  from  the  Educational  Research  Service,  and  from  a  dona- 
tion to  the  Department  of  the  balance  remaining  in  the  convention  fund 
contributed  by  the  Chicago  hotels. 

The  financial  statement  submitted   herewith   covers  the  calendar  year 

1924.  It  includes  expenses  of  the  Chicago  convention  and  the  preliminary 
expenditures  for  the  1925  meeting  in  Cincinnati.    The  details  follow: 


370  Department  of  Superintendence 


Receipts 

Annual  dues,  1533  members  1924 $7665.00 

Annual  dues,  494  members  1925 2473.50 

Yearbooks  sold 1364.13 

Commercial  exhibit,  Chicago    : 5142.81 

Miscellaneous    33.49 

Research  service    525.00 

Balance  Chicago  convention  fund 434.00 

Total   receipts    $17,637.93 

Balance,  January   1 275.84 


$17,913.77 
Expenditures 
Chicago  Convention: 

Publicity    520.30 

Building  reports 295.00 

President    expense 55.00 

Secretary    expense 505.51 

Programs    496.05 

Registration 516.09 

Stenographic   report 155.05 

Honorariums    267.86 

Projection    service 25.00 

Chicago    railroad    certificates 85.50 

Badges     35.70 

Music    . .  40.00 

Educational    exhibit 60.00 

Total   Chicago  convention 3,057.06 

Other  Items: 

Salary,  Executive   Secretary 6499.96 

Second   Yearbook 2250.38 

Bulletins  and  Official-  Report 354.60 

Other    printing 174.25 

Postage   and    Stationery , 1281.24 

Stenographic   and   clerical 60.37 

Telephone   and   telegraph 200.62 

Secretary    expense 384.97 

President    expense 32.47 

Executive   Committee   expense 319.85 

Expense,  Audit  Committee.  .  .  : 25.97 

Research    Assistant 537.01 

Commission  on  Curriculum 86.34 

Surety  bonds 30.00 

Collection    fees -40 

Cincinnati    railroad    certificates 85.50 

Office    supplies 25.08 

Total   general    expense 12,349.01 

Total  expense  for  the  year $15,406.07 

Balance,  December  31,   1924 2,507.70 

$17,913.77 


The  Third  Yearbook  371 


In  conclusion — The  work  of  the  year  has  again  demonstrated  the  im- 
portance of  the  help  and  good-will  of  friends.  The  headquarters  staff  of 
the  National  Education  Association  have  rendered  willing  and  competent 
assistance  whenever  opportunity  offered.  The  school  organizations  and 
the  chambers  of  commerce  of  our  convention  cities,  Chicago  and  Cincinnati, 
have  diligently  served  our  interests,  frequently  at  great  personal  incon- 
venience. Our  yearbook  and  our  civic  and  art  exhibits  place  us  under 
new  obligations  of  gratitude. 

The  superintendent  of  schools  has  no  light  responsibility.  Public  finance, 
business  matters,  school  buildings,  curriculum  construction,  records  and 
reports,  methods  of  organization,  teachers'  meetings,  are  a  few  of  the  sub- 
jects with  which  he  must  concern  himself.  Moreover,  these  are  but  items 
in  the  great  work  of  guiding  and  guarding  the  childhood  of  America. 
Upon  the  successful  accomplishment  of  this  task  depends  the  future  of  our 
Nation  and  the  preservation  of  its  ideals.  The  Department  of  Superin- 
tendence, through  its  great  winter  meeting  and  year-round  service,  offers 
to  superintendents  of  schools  a  comradeship  of  common  interests  and  brings 
inspiration  for  renewed  effort. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

S.  D.  Shankland, 

Executive  Secretary. 


REPORT  OF  AUDITING  COMMITTEE 

Washington,  D.  C,  January  15,  1925. 

We,  the  Auditing  Committee  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of 
the  National  Education  Association,  have  this  day  examined  the  accounts  of 
the  Department  of  Superintendence  from  December  31,  1923,  to  Decem- 
ber 31,  1924,  as  presented  to  us  by  Secretary  S.  D.  Shankland,  and  find 
them  to  be  correct. 

H.  V.  Holloway, 

W.  J.  BlCKETT. 


List  of  Members 

The  Department  of  Superintendence 

of  the 

National  Education  Association  of  the  United  States 

Corrected  to  January  10,  1925 


Abbott,  Winthrop,  A.  B.  '93,  Dartmouth; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  36  High,  Greenfield,  Mass., 
since    1912. 

Ackley,  Clarence  E.,  A.  B.  '10,  A.  M.  '13, 
Oberlin  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Ashland,  Ky., 
since    1922. 

Adams,  Emerson  L.,  A.  B.  '89,  A.  M.  '92, 
Bowdoin  Col. ;  Assist.  Com.  of  Ed. ;  State 
House,    Providence,    R.    I.,    since    1917. 

Adams,    E.    Ray,    Supt   of   Sch.,    Tarkio,    Mo. 

Afflerbach,  Calvin  E.,  Rural  Supervisor,  State 
Dept.   of  Pub.   Instr.,   Georgetown,    Del. 

Agnew,  Walter  D.,  M.  A.  '21,  Ph.  D.  '23, 
Columbia  U.;  Pres.  Womans  Col.  of  Ala., 
Fairview  Ave.,  Montgomery,  Ala.,  since 
1922. 

Akers,  A.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Roanoke  Rapids, 
N.   C. 

Alan,  John  S.,  A.  B.  '93,  A.  M.  '00,  Thiel 
Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  529  McKinley  Ave., 
Salem,   Ohio,  since   1913. 

Alcorn.  M.  O.,  M.  S.  '20,  Univ.  of  Ark.; 
Supt,  of  Sch.,  213  E.  North  St.,  Magnolia, 
Ark.,    since   1924. 

Alderman,  Grover  H.,  B.  A.  '13,  Iowa  State 
Teachers  Col.;  M.  A.  '19,  Ph.  D.  '20,  State 
Univ.  of  Iowa;  Prof,  of  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Ind., 
525  N.  Park  Ave.,  Bloomington,  Ind., 
since   1922. 

Alderson,  W.  C,  A.  B.  '89,  Willamette  Univ. ; 
Co.  Sch.  Supt.,  642  Courthouse,  Portland, 
Ore.,  since  1916. 

Aldrich,  McCall,   Supt  of  Sch.,  Chino,   Calif. 

Alexander,  Carter,  B.  S.  '05,  A.  B.  '06,  A.  M. 
'08,  Univ.  of  Mo.;  Ph.D.  '10,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Research  Asso.,  T.  C.  Columbia 
Univ.,  Div.  of  Field  Stud.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Alexander,  Claude  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hib- 
bing,    Minn. 

Alexander,  James  W.,  Supervisor,  Greenwood 
Sch.,  Trenton,   N.  J. 

Alfriend,  Kyle  T.,  Prof.  Education  &  Psy- 
chology,   Bessie  Tift   Col.,   Forsyth,   Ga. 

Alger,  John  L.,  A.  B.  '90,  A.  M.  '95,  Brown 
Univ.;  Ed.  D.  '21,  R.  I.  State  Col.;  Pres. 
of  R.  I.  Col.  of  Ed.,  Providence,  R.  I., 
since   1908. 

Allan,  Harold  A.,  A.  B.  '06,  Bates  Col.; 
Director  Business  Division,  N.  E.  A.,  1201 
Sixteenth  St.  N.  W.,  Washington,  D.  C, 
since    1923. 

Allen,  A.  T.,  Ph.  B.  '97,  Univ.  of  N.  C. ; 
D.  C.  L.  '24,  Elon  Col.,  N.  C. ;  State  Supt. 
of  Pub.   Instr.,   Raleigh,   N.   C,   since   1923. 

Allen,  C.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Idaho  Springs, 
Colo. 


Allen,  I.  M.,  A.  B.  '96,  Lawrence  Col.; 
LL.  B.  '02,  Harvard  Univ.;  Student  in 
Tchrs.  Co.,  509  W.  121st  St.,  New  York, 
N.  Y. 

Allen,  J.  H.,  A.  B.  '09,  Univ.  of  N.  C. ; 
Supt.  of  Co.  Sch.,  33  N.  Main  St.,  Reids- 
ville,   N.   C. 

Allen,  Philemon  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  510  W. 
Washington  St.,  Bluffton,  Ind.,  since  1881. 

Allen,  R.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wadesboro, 
N.  C. 

Allman,  H.  B.,  B.  S.  '10,  Tri-State  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Rushville,  Ind. 

Allsworth,  B.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Primero, 
Colo. 

Alltucker,  Margaret  M.,  B.  L.  '14,  M.  A. 
'19,  Ph.  D.  '22,  U.  of  Calif.;  Asst.  Dir., 
Research  Div.,  N.  E.  A.,  1734  N  St. 
N.  W.,  Washington,  D.   C,  since  1923. 

Ames,  A.  F.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Riverside, 
111. 

Anders,  R.  G.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hender- 
sonville,   N.   C. 

Anderson,  A.  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2f20  S.  Fifth 
Ave.,    La   Grange,   111. 

Anderson,  C.  J.,  Asst.  State  Supt.  of  Sch.. 
Madison,   Wis. 

Anderson,  David  Allen,  B.  A.  '08,  M.  A. 
'10,  Ph.  D.  '12,  U.  of  Iowa;  Head  Dept. 
of  Ed.  and  Psycho.,  Pa.  State  Col.,  306 
S.   Gill  St.,   State  College,  Pa.,  since  1917. 

Anderson,  Earl  W.,  A.  B.  '18,  Univ.  of  111.; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,    Charleston,   111.,   since   1919. 

Anderson,  Ernest  B.,  B.  A.  '09,  Gustavus 
Adolphus  Co.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  115  Third 
St.,   Cloquet,   Minn.,  since  1923. 

Anderson,  Homer  W.,  B.  A.  '10,  Des  Moines 
U. ;  M.  A.  '15,  State  U.  of  Iowa;  Asst. 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  414  Fourteenth  St.,  Denver, 
Colo.,  since  1923. 

Anderson,  J.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hawley, 
Minn. 

Anderson,  John  A.,  A.  B.  '97,  A.  M.  '98, 
Lake  Forest;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Miles  City, 
Mont.,  since  1919. 

Andrews,  Edwin  C,  A.  B.  '89,  Williams; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O.  Drawer  292,  Green- 
wich,  Conn.,  since   1910. 

Andrews,  J.  O.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2825 
May  St.,  Ft.  Worth,  Tex. 

Andrews,  L.  G.,  '08,  Howard  Payne  Col. 
A.  B.  18,  Univ.  of  Texas;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Navasota,   Tex.,   since   1919. 

Andrews,  M.  B.,  A.  B.  '14,  M.  A.  '16, 
Trinity  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  622, 
Fayetteville,   N.   C,  since  1921. 


[372] 


The  Third  Yearbook 


373 


Andrews,  Sterling  M.,  B.  S.  '04,  Valparaiso 
U.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Walsenburg,  Colo., 
since   1908. 

Andrews,  T.  Wingate,  A.  B.  '08,  Univ.  of 
N.  C. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  271,  Salisbury, 
N.   C,  since   1917. 

Angel,  W.  H.,  A.  B.  '95,  A.  M.  '99,  Ohio 
Northern  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  823  N. 
2nd   St.,    Dennison,   Ohio,   since    1905. 

Antrim,  Eugene  Marion,  A.  B.  '96.  U.  of 
Denver;  S.  T.  B.  '00,  Boston  U.,  Sch.  of 
Theology;  Ph.  D.  '04,  Boston  U. ;  Pres. 
Okla.  City  U.,  1218  W.  21st  St.,  Okla- 
homa  City,    Okla.,   since    1923. 

App,  Isaac  D.,  B.  S.  '05,  M.  S.  '10,  Susque- 
hanna Univ.;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Harris- 
burg,  Pa.,  since  1922. 

Appel,  Frank,  A.  B.  '94,  Ohio  Wesleyan; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  840  8th  St.,  Portsmouth, 
Ohio,  since   1908. 

Appenzellar,  J.  L.,  Sup.  Prin.  of  Sch., 
Wyomissing,   Pa. 

Apple,  S.  B.,  A.  B.  '07,  Baker  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  High  School,  Baxter  Spring, 
Kans. ;    since    1920. 

Appleby,  Flavius  Thompson,  B.  S.  '01,  Univ. 
of  Tenn. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  382,  Florence, 
Ala.,  since   1917. 

Aquinas,  Sister  Thomas,  O.  S.  D.,  A.  B. 
'12,  A.  M.  '13,  Ph.  D.  '15,  Catholic  U. 
of  America;  Dean  Rosary  Col.,  River 
Forest,   111.,   since   1923. 

Arendell,  J.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  324  A.  S.  E., 
Miami,   Okla. 

Armstrong,  T.  H.,  500  Duffy-Powers  Bldg., 
Rochester,    N.    Y. 

Arnett,  Frank  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  White  Sul- 
phur Springs,  W.  Va. 

Arnold,  E.  H.,  1466  Chapel  St.,  New  Haven, 
Conn. 

Arnold,  E.  J.,  B.  S.  '17,  Wilmington  Col.; 
M.  A.  '23,  Ohio  State  U. ;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Huntsville,    Ohio,   since   1920. 

Arnold,  E.  O.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Marenisco, 
Mich. 

Arps,  George  F.,  A.  B.  '04,  Leland  Stan- 
ford Jr.  U. ;  A.  M.  '05,  Indiana  Univ.; 
Ph.  D.  '08,  Leipzig,  Germany;  Dean  Col. 
of  Ed.,  Prof,  of  Psycho.,  Ohio  State  U., 
Columbus,   Ohio,   since   1912. 

Ash,  Willoughby  Ross,  B.  S.  '18,  Heidel- 
berg U. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  38,  Napoleon, 
Ohio,   since    1918. 

Ashbaugh,  E.  J.,  A.  B.  '12,  A.  M.  '13,  Ind. 
U. ;  Ph.  D.  '19,  U.  of  la.;  Asst.  Dir.  Bur. 
of  Ed.  Research,  Orton  Hall,  Ohio  State 
U.,   Columbus,   Ohio,   since   1921. 

Ashfield,  Nora,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Rich- 
mond,   Calif. 

Ashley,  Frank  L.,  B.  S.  'n,  Young-Harris 
Col.;  A.  M.  '13,  Newberry  Col.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,   Hamlet,    N.    C,   since   1923. 

Atwell,  Floyd,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2106  7th  Ave., 
Beaver  Falls,  Pa. 

Austin,  George  W.,  B.  S.  '06,  Grayson  Col.; 
Pres.  Okla.  Col.  for  Women,  Chickasha, 
Okla.,  since   1914. 


Avery,  Lewis  B.,  A.  M.  '8q,  Tabor  Col.  ; 
Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1 112  City  Hall,  Oak- 
land,  Calif.,  since  1913. 

Avery,  M.  C,  B.  S.  '10,  Wooster;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,   Wadsworth,   Ohio,   since   1924. 

Avery,  William  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Drawer 
603,  Alexandria,  La.,  since  1919. 

Axtelle,  George,  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Honokaa, 
Hawaii. 

Ayer,  Fred  C,  Prof,  of  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Wash., 
Seattle,   Wash. 

Babb.  H.  A.,  B.  S.  'n,  Univ.  of  Ky. ;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,   Mt.   Sterling,   Ky.,   since   1920. 

Bachrodt,  Walter  L.,  A.  B.  '20,  A.  M.  '21, 
Stanford;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  San  Jose,  Calif., 
since    1921. 

Bacon,  Willard  H.,  A.  B.  '00,  Brown  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Westerly,   R.   I.,  since   1913. 

Baer,  Joseph  A.,  Asst.  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
3840   Mayfield   Rd.,   Cleveland,   Ohio. 

Baggett,  John  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lake  For- 
est,   111. 

Baggs,   Louise  D.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bristol,  Pa. 

Bagnall,  Francis  Asbury,  A.  B.  'go,  A.  M. 
'00,  Wesleyan  Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Ad- 
ams,  Mass.,   since   1901. 

Bailey,  D.  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Harbor  Springs, 
Mich. 

Bailey,    Edward   L.,    Supt.   of   Sch.,    Box    135, 

Jackson,    Miss. 

Bailey,  John  H,  Jr.,  '82,  R.  I.  Col.  of  Ed.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  533,  Anthony,  R.  I., 
since    1919. 

Bailey,  R.  E.,  A.  B.  '20,  Univ.  of  Nebr., 
Newman   Grove,    Nebr. 

Bair,  Carl  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  650  4th  Ave., 
Berlin,    N.    H. 

Baker,  Chilton  Clyde,  B.  S.  '96,  A.  M.  '13, 
Ohio  Northern  Univ. ;  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Grand   Rapids,    Minn.,   since    1920. 

Baker,  Edna  Dean,  B.  A.  '20,  M.  A.  '21, 
Northwestern  U. ;  B.  E.  '13,  Nat.  Kinder- 
garten Col. ;  Pres.  Nat.  Kindergarten  and 
Elem.  Col.,  2944  S.  Michigan  Ave.,  Chi- 
cago,  111.,   since    ig20. 

Baker,  Frank  E.,  A.  B.  '05,  Allegheny  Col.; 
A.  M.  '08,  Harvard  U. ;  A.  M.  '13,  Alle- 
gheny Col.;  Pres.  Milwaukee  St.  Normal, 
Milwaukee,  Wis.,  since  1923. 

Baker,  George  Marshall,  B.  A.  '13,  Univ.  of 
Minn.;  M.  A.  '14,  Columbia  Univ.,  536 
S.   Clark  St.,  Chicago,  111. 

Baker,  N.  R.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  101  Court 
House,   Birmingham,   Ala. 

Baker,  Oscar  R.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  322  E. 
Franklin   St.,   Winchester,   Ind. 

Baker,  Sam  A.,  Ed.  Director  Grolier  Society, 
Jefferson  City,  Mo. 

Baker,  W.  D.,  A.  B.  '93,  A.  M.  '94,  Univ.  of 
Mich.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Clifton,  Ariz.,  since 
1918. 

Baker,    William    Elwood,    A.  B.    '16,    A.    M. 

'20,    Colo.    St.    Teh.    Col.;  Supt.    of    Sch., 

311    E.    Kiowa    St..,    Fort  Morgan,    Colo., 
since    1924. 


374 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Balch,  Frank  A.,  '88,  Bridgewater  Normal 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  201  Jane  St.,  Weehawken, 
N.   J.,   since   1914. 

Balcom,  A.  G„  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  New 
Providence,   R.   I. 

Baldridge,  Chloe  C,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court 
House,   Fullerton,   Nebr.,  since   1915. 

Baldwin,  William  A.,  B.  S.  '97,  Harvard  U. ; 
Prin.  State  Normal  Sch.,  Hyannis,  Mass., 
since    1897. 

Baldy,  Edward  Vincent,  A.  B.  '85,  A.  M. 
'86,  Mercer  U. ;  M.  T.  '89,  Southern  Bap- 
tist Tkeo.  Sem. ;  Pres.  of  Judson  Col., 
Marion,   Ala.,   since   1923. 

Ballard,  Agnes,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  West 
Palm   Beach,   Fla. 

Ballard,  N.  H.,  State  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Atlanta, 
Ga. 

Ballou,  Frank  Washington,  B.  S.  '04,  Teach- 
ers Col.  Columbia  Univ. ;  M.  A.  '08,  Univ. 
of  Cincinnati;  Ph.  D.  '14,  Harvard  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Washington,  D.  C,  since 
1920. 

Balsbaugh,  E.  M.,  B.  S.  '01,  M.  S.  '05, 
Lebanon  Valley  Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  236 
S.   Eighth  St.,   Lebanon,   Pa.,  since  1914. 

Balveat,  F.  A.,  B.  A.  '11,  M.  A.  '18,  Univ. 
of  Okla.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  220  S.  Hill  St., 
Hobart,  Okla.,  since  1919. 

Bambesberger,  Velda  C.,  A.  M.  'ig,  Univ. 
of  111.;  Dir.  of  Gr.  and  Ed.  Stats.,  613 
N.  Grand  St.,  Okmulgee,  Okla.,  since 
1920. 

Bank,  A.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Park  Rapids, 
Minn. 

Banks,  Charles,  B.  S.  '10,  State  Teachers 
Col.;  M.  A.  '14,  Univ.  of  Wis.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,   Kirksville,   Mo.,  since   1922. 

Banks,  L.  F.,  Asst.  Supt.,  2030  Park  Ave., 
Birmingham,  Ala. 

Banta,  J.  Edward,  Prin.  City  Norm.  Sch., 
529  Stolp  Ave.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

Banting,  George  Orton,  Ph.  B.  '15,  Univ.  of 
Chicago;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Waukesha  H.  S. 
Bldg.,  Waukesha,  Wis.,  since   1920. 

Barber,  Charles  Emory,  A.  B.  '04,  A.  M.  '05, 
Univ.  of  Nebr. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Alhambra, 
Calif.,   since   1915. 

Barber,  F.  W.,  A.  M.  '10,  Columbia;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,   Newfield,   Middletown,   Conn. 

Bardwell,  C.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  429  Fox  St., 
Aurora,    111. 

Bardwell,  R.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  6th  Ave. 
and   21st  St.,   Rock  Island,   111. 

Barker,   H.   L.,   Supt.  of  Sch.,   Bangor,   Mich. 

Barker,  J.  F.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  306  Munic- 
ipal  Bldg.,   Rochester,    N.   Y. 

Barker,   J.    M.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,    Depew,   N.   Y. 

Barker,  V.   H.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Chenoa,   111. 

Barnes,  C.  H.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court 
House,   Duluth,   Minn. 

Barnes,  Harold,  A.  B.  '9^2,  Kans.  Univ.,  A. 
M.  'n,  Teh.  Col.,  Columbia  Univ.;  Sup. 
Prin.  Elem.  Ed.,  Girard,  Col.,  Philadel- 
phia,  Pa.,  since   igii. 


Barnes,  Percival  S.,  B.  S.  '17,  A.  M.  '18, 
Columbia  Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  East  Hart- 
ford,  Conn.,  since   1919. 

Barnes,  W.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  518  W.  Chest- 
nut St.,   Carthage,   Mo. 

Barnett,  D'Arcy  C,  A.  B.  '98,  A.  M.  '07, 
■  Univ.  of  Md. ;  A.  M.  '11,  Columbia  Univ.; 
'13,  Columbia  Univ.  Diploma;  Sup.  Prin. 
of  Sch.,  7  Cleveland  St.,  Caldwell,  N.  J., 
since    1911. 

Barr,  A.  S.,  Dept.  of  Supvn.,  Bd.  of  Ed., 
Detroit,    Mich. 

Barr,  Oscar  O.,  B.  S.  '18,  Teachers  Col. 
Columbia  Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  South 
Amboy,  N.  J.,  since  1914. 

Barrett,  H.  J.,  A.  B.  '00,  Univ.  of  Wooster; 
A.  M.  '16,  Dickinson  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
409  Walnut  Street,  Hollidaysburg,  Pa., 
since   1913. 

Barrett,  Harry  M.,  B.  A.  '90,  M.  A.  '93, 
Allegheny  Col.;  Litt.  D.  '14,  Univ.  of 
Denver;  Dir.  Col.  of  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Colo., 
Boulder,    Colo.,   since   1920. 

Barry,  A.  G.,  B.  A.  '17,  B.  C.  S.  '16,  Albion; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  299,  Nora  Springs, 
Iowa. 

Barthelmeh,  Charles,  B.  S.  '22,  Kent  St. 
Norm.  Col.;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  New  Phila- 
delphia, Ohio,  since   1914. 

Bartlett,  Paul  B.,  B.  A.  '15,  Grinnell  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  52,  Gilmore  City,  Iowa, 
since   1922. 

Barton,  James  Richard,  B.  A.  '13,  Hendrix 
Col.;  M.  A.  '21,  Teh.  Col.,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  613  N.  Grand  Ave., 
Okmulgee,  Okla.,  since  1924.  . 

Bash,  Eugene  H.,  B.  S.  '20,  N.  E.  Mo.  State 
Tchrs  Col.,  Kirksville;  Prin.  Henry  C. 
Kumpf  School,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  since 
1923. 

Bass,  E.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,   Greenville,  Miss. 

Bass,  O.  W.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Fayette- 
ville,    Ark. 

Bassette,  Alfred  S.,  A.  B.  '13,  Syracuse  U. ; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Walden,    N.    Y.,  since   1923. 

Batcheller,  D.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  120  Payne 
Ave.,   North  Tonawanda,  N.  Y. 

Bate,  William  G.,  B.  A.  '10,  M.  A.  '15, 
Ripon  Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  8th  and  North 
B  Sts.,  Richmond,  Ind.,  since  1921. 

Bates,  H.  L.,  B.  S.  '24,  Kent  St.  Col.;  Supt. 
Co.  Sch.,  I.  O.  O.  F.  Bldg.,  Caldwell, 
Ohio,  since   1915. 

Bates,  Horace  Freeman,  A.  B.  '98,  Harvard; 
Union  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Swansea,  Mass.,  since 
1922. 

Bauer,  Nicholas,  B.  S.  '97,  M.  A.  '99,  Tulane 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  Hall  Annex, 
New  Orleans,   La.,  since  1922. 

Bauman,  D.  H.,  Ph.  B.  '06,  Grove  City,  Pa.; 
Suprg.   Prin.,   Meyersdale,    Pa.,   since   1920. 

Baumgardner,  G.  U.,  B.  S.  '12,  Wooster; 
County  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court  House, 
Wooster,   Ohio,  since   1914. 

Baumgartner,  John,  M.  S.  '20,  Univ.  of  Ark. ; 
M.  A.  '22,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,   Brinkley,  Ark. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


375 


Bawden,  William  T.,  A.  B.  '96,  Denison 
Univ.;  B.  S.  '10,  Teh.  Col.,  Columbia  U.; 
Ph.  D.  '14,  Teh.  Col.,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Asso.  Supt.  Sch.,  Board  of  Ed.  Bldg., 
Tulsa,   Okla.,  since   1923. 

Bay,   James  C,   Supt.  of  Sch.,   Easton,   Pa. 

Baylor,  Adelaide  Steele,  Ph.  B.  '97,  U.  of 
Chi.;  M.  A.  '18,  Columbia  U. ;  Chief  of 
Home  Economics  Ed.  Serv.,  Fed.  Bd.  for 
Voc.  Ed.,  since  1923. 

Bayne,  Stephen  F.,  Pub.  Sch.,  No.  1,  Van 
Alst  Ave.,  and  Ninth  St.,  Long  Island 
City,   N.   Y. 

Beach,  M.  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Moberly,  Mo. 

Beals,  R.  G.,  A.  B.  '07,  Earlham  Col.;  M.  A. 
'09,  Indiana  Univ.,  Supt.  -Twp.  H.  S., 
DeKalb,  111.,  since  1922. 

Bear,  Harris  V.,  A.  B.  '03,  Otterbein  Col.; 
A.  M.  '10,  Harvard  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
301  S.  5th  St.,  Miamisburg,  Ohio,  since 
I9I5- 

Beard,  R.  B.,  B.  S.  '18,  Bucknell  Univ.; 
Supr.  Prin.  Pub.  Sch.,  Portage,  Pa.,  since 
1919. 

Beatty,  Edward,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Warrens- 
burg,   Mo. 

Becht,  J.  George,  State  Supt.  of  Pub.  Inst., 
Harrisburg,   Pa.  ' 

Becker,  C.  F.,  Ph.  B.  '08,  Mt.  Union  Col.; 
M.  A.  '17,  Columbia  Univ.;  State  Normal, 
Clarion,    Pa. 

Bedwell,     R.     L.,     Ph.  B.     '10,     Miss.     Col.; 

M.   A.   'if,   Univ.   of  Miss.;    Supt.   of   Sch., 

220     Jackson     Ave.,  Yazoo     City,     Miss., 
since   1919. 

Beede,  F.  H.,  B.  A.  '83,  Yale;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  169  Church  St.,  New  Haven,  Conn., 
since    1899. 

Belisle,  Hector  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Fall  River, 
Mass. 

Bell,  H.   C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Luverne,   Minn. 

Bemis,  George  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  3  Willow 
Ave.,   Salem,  Mass. 

Bender,  John  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  625, 
Pittsburg,   Kans. 

Bender,  L.  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Cokeville,  Wyo. 

Benezet,  L.  P.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Manchester, 
N.   H. 

Bennett,  J.  M.,  A.  B.  '10,  Western  Md.  Col.; 

Co.    Supt.    of    Sch.,    Salisbury,    Md.,    since 

1917- 
Bennett,  Robert  K.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  no  Cross 

St.,   Central  Falls,  R.  I. 

Bennett,  Thomas  G.,  A.  B.  '09,  West,  Md. 
Col.;  A.  M.  '22,  Tchrs.  Col.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,   Centreville,   Md. 

Bennett,  Ulric  J.,  A.  B.  '09,  Univ.  of  Ga. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O.  Box  69,  Fitzgerald, 
Ga.,   since   1921. 

Bennion,  Milton,  B.  S.  '97,  Univ.  of  Utah; 
M.  A.  '01,  Columbia  Univ.;  Dean,  School 
of  Ed.  Univ.  of  Utah,  Salt  Lake  City, 
Utah, 

Benson,  Nelson  P.,  B.  S.  '08,  Washington 
Square  Col.;  M.  A.  '14,  Ph.  D.  '19, 
N.  Y.  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lock  Haven, 
Pa.,   since   1920. 


Benson,  W.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Decatur,  Ala. 

Bentley,  J.  H,  A.  B.  '03,  Wesleyan  U., 
Middletown,  Conn.;  M.  A.  '16,  Columbia 
U. ;  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  2  W.  45th  St.,  New 
York,   N.   Y. 

Berg,  B.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Newton,  Iowa. 

Berg,  Selmer  H.,  B.  A.  '17,  St.  Olaf  Col.; 
M.  A.  '24,  U.  of  Minn.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Stoughton,  Wis.,  since   1924. 

Berry,  L.  J.,  B.  S.  '05,  Trinity  U.,  M.  A. 
'22,  Columbia  U. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  203, 
San   Marcos,  Tex. 

Berry,  Merrill  M.,  A.  B.  '19,  Baldwin-Wal- 
lace Col.;  A.  M.  '22,  Ohio  State  U.,  Supt. 
of  Sch.,   147   E.   Bridge  St.,   Berea,  Ohio. 

Bersagel,  E.  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wakonda, 
S.    Dak. 

Beu,  Frank  A.,  A.  B.  '20,  Northwestern 
Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hebron,  111.,  since 
1921. 

Beumer,  Edward  H.,  A.  B.  '14,  B.  S.  '14, 
Univ.  of  Mo.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Urbana,  111. 

Beveridge,  John  H,  B.  Pd.  '97,  Ohio  Univ. ; 
M.  A.  '15,  Columbia  Univ.;  M.  A.  '15, 
D.  Pd.  '17,  Ohio  Univ.;  Pres.  Dept.  of 
Superintendence,  1922;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  601 
City   Hall,    Omaha,    Nebr.,   since    1917. 

Bickett,  William  J.,  Ph.  B.  '01,  Ph.  D.  '22, 
Grover  City;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  9  S.  Stockton, 
Trenton,   N.  J.,  since   1920. 

Bickford,  C.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  28  Webster 
St.,   Lewiston,   Maine. 

Biester,  Fred,  538  Turner  Ave.,  Glen  Ellyn, 
111. 

Billinghurst,  B.  D.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  729  Evans 
Ave.,    Reno,    Nev. 

Bimson,  O.  H,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2015  S.  St., 
University  Place,   Nebr. 

Binford,  J.  H,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  312  N. 
9th  St.,   Richmond,   Va. 

Binnion,  R.  B.,  Pres.,  East  Tex.  State  Tchrs. 
Col.,   Commerce,  Tex. 

Birckhead,  Edward  F.,  M.  A.  '12,  Columbia 
U. ;  Ed.  M.  '23,  Harvard  U. ;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  Hickman  St.  School,  Winchester, 
Ky.,  since  1923. 

Bishop,  Charles  C,  A.  B.  '06,  U.  of  Wis.; 
M.  A.  '19,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Oshkosh,   Wis.,  since   1921. 

Bishop,  Fred  G.,  '05,  Oshkosh  Normal; 
A.  B.  '15,  Univ.  of  Wis.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Two   Rivers,   Wis.,   since    1920. 

Bishop,  Martha  V.,  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
7208  Bennett  Ave.,   Chicago,  111. 

Bishop,    W.     H.,    Supt.    of    Sch.,    Stillwater, 

Okla. 
Bixby,     Herbert     D.,     Asst.     Supt.     of     Sch., 

Cleveland,   Ohio. 

Blackwell,  John  C,  B.  S.  '16,  Geo.  Peabody 
Col.;  Supt.  T.  C.  I.  Sch.,  1210  Brown, 
Marx  Bldg.,  Birmingham,  Ala.,  since  1917. 

Blair,  Francis  G.,  State  Supt.  of  Pub.  Inst., 
Capitol   Building,   Springfield,   111. 

Blair,  Hale  B.,  B.  S.  '12,  Ottawa  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  408  S.  8th  St.,  Humboldt, 
Kans.,  since  1924. 


376 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Blair    John  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  East  Dubuque, 

111. 
Blair,    Parr    Dalton,    Co.    Supt.    of    Sch.,    580 

Walnut  Park,   Meadville,  Pa. 

Blanchard,  Charles  A.,  A.  B.  '70,  A.  M.  '73, 
Wheaton  Col. ;  D.  D.  '90,  Monmouth, 
111.;  Pres.  Wheaton  Col.,  Wheaton,  111., 
since   1882. 

Blanton,  Annie  Webb,  B.  Lit.  '99,  M.  A. 
'23,  Univ.  of  Tex.;  Adj.  Prof,  of  Ed. 
Admin.,  Univ.  of  Tex.,  Univ.  Sta.,  Aus- 
tin,  Tex.,  since   1923. 

Blanton.  R.  S.,  M.  A.  '14,  A.  B.  '13,  L.  I. 
'05,  Univ.  of  Fla. ;  Co.  Supt.  of  Pub.  Inst., 
Clearwater,    Fla.,    since    1921. 

Bleecker,   H.   L.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Hart,    Mich. 

Bliss,   D.    C,    Normal  Sch.,   Trenton,   N.   J. 

Bliss,  Walton  B.,  A.  B.  '15,  Heidelberg 
Univ. ;  Asst.  St.  Dir.  of  Ed.,  State  House 
Annex,    Columbus,    Ohio,    since    1920. 

Blodgett,  Frank  D.,  A.  B.  '93,  A.  M.  '96, 
LL.  D.,  '18,  Amherst  Col.;  Pres.  Adelphi 
Col.,    Brooklyn,    N.    Y.,    since    1915. 

Board    of    Education,    Franklin,    N.    J. 

Bocock,  C.  E.,  Pres.,  State  Norm.  Sch.,  Al- 
bion,   Idaho. 

Bodwell,   E.  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Ames,  Iowa. 

Bohlander,  J.  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Moorhead, 
Minn. 

Bolcom,  Winfred  G.,  M.  A.  '15,  Univ.  of 
Minn.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Roches- 
ter,   Minn.,   since   1919. 

Bonar,  Hugh  S.,  M.  A.,  '24,  Univ.  of  Chi- 
cago; B.  A.  '18,  B.  Acc'ts.  '16,  Mt.  Mor- 
ris Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  626  North  Park 
St.,    Richland    Center,    Wis.,    since    1923. 

Bonar,  J.  S..  Asst.  State  Supv.  Rural  Sch., 
3   Arlington   Court,   Charleston,   W.   Va. 

Bond,   G.   G.,    Supt.   of   Sch.,   Athens,    Ga. 

Bonner,  E.  J.,  Prin.  City  Norm.  Sch.,  Roches- 
ter,   N.   Y. 

Bonner,  G.  H.,  A.  B.,  '01,  Dickinson  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O.  Box  246,  Kit  Carson, 
Colo,    since    1923. 

Booker,  W.  R.,  A.  B.,  '16,  Indiana  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  610  S.  Franklin  St.,  Green- 
ville,   Mich.,   since    1918. 

Boone,  D.  J.,  B.  S.  'g8,  Mt.  Union  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.,  Lorain,  Ohio,  -since 
1914. 

Borden,  Walter  W.,  B.  S.  '12,  Ohio  State; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Admin.  Bldg.,  South  Bend, 
Ind.,    since    1919. 

Bosley,  L.  C,  A.  B.  '91,  L.  L.  B.  '98,  Cen- 
tre Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  219  So.  4th  St., 
Danville,    Ky.,   since   1918. 

Boucher,  C.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Valparaiso, 
Irrd. 

Bourgard,  Caroline  B.,  State  Dir.  of  Music, 
1151  E.  Broadway,  Louisville,  Ky.,  since 
1923. 

Bowden,  R.  D.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.,  Ha- 
vana,  111. 

Bowers,    E.   V.,    Supt.   of  Sch.,   Galion,    Ohio. 


Bowlby,  R.  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  285  W.  Clin- 
ton St.,   Dover,   N.   J. 

Bowlus,  Edgar  S.,  A.  B.  '11,  St.  John's 
Col.;  A.  B.  '12,  Univ.  of  Md. ;  A.  M. 
'16,  St.  John's  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Brook- 
haven,    Miss.,    since    1922. 

Bowman,  George  A.,  A.  B.  '17,  Western  Re- 
serve Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O.  Box 
343,    Chillicothe,    Ohio,    since    1923. 

Bowman,  Grover  Chester,  B.  A.  '06,  Wil- 
liams; M.  A.  '12,  Yale;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
City  Hall,  North  Adams,  Mass.,  since  1922. 

Bowton,  R.  C,  A.  B.,  'n,  Ind.;  M.  A.  '15, 
Wis.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  323  So.  Fairfax  St., 
Alexandria,    Va.,    since    1923. 

Boyce,  Ella  Ruth,  Dir.  of  Kdrgtns.,  705  Ful- 
ton   Bldg.,     Pittsburgh,    Pa. 

Boyd,  Paul  E.,  A.  B.  '16,  Centre  Col.,  Dan- 
ville, Ky. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lancaster,  Ky., 
since    ig20. 

Boyden,  Arthur  Clarke,  A.  M.  '83,  Amherst 
Col. ;  Prin.  State  Normal  Sch.,  Box  55, 
Bridgewater,    Mass.,  since   1906. 

Boyden,  Wallace  C,  A.  B.  '83,  A.  M.  '86, 
Amherst  Col. ;  Prin.  Teh.  Col.  of  Boston, 
Huntington  Ave.,  Boston,  Mass.,  since 
1900. 

Boyer,  Charles  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Atlantic 
City,    N.   J.,   since    1890. 

Boyes,  Walter  F.,  County  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Court    House,    Galesburg,    111. 

Boynton.  Frank  David,  A.  B.  '91,  Middle- 
bury  Col. ;  A.  M.  '94,  Hamilton,  Col. ; 
Ped.  D.  '03,  Syracuse  Univ.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,   Box  96,  Ithaca,   N.   Y.,  since   1900. 

Bracken,  John  L.,  A.  M.  '22,  Univ.  of  Chi- 
cago; Supt.  of  Sch.,  Clayton,  Mo.,  since 
1923. 

Bradford,  Mary  C.  C,  Litt.  D.  '14,  Univ.  of 
Denver;  State  Supt.  of  Pub.  Instr.,  127 
State  Capitol  Bldg.,  Denver,  Colo.,  since 
1913- 

Bradner,  J.  W.,  B.  S.  '94,  Tri.  State  Col.; 
A.  B.  '08,  Ind.  U. ;  A.  M.  '24,  Teh.  Col. 
Columbia  U. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Middlesboro, 
Ky.,    since    1922. 

Brady,  W.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wakefield, 
R.   I. 

Bragdon,     Frederick    E.,     B.     A.     '91,     Wes., 
. .    Conn.;    M.   A.   '05,    Brown;    Supt.    of  Sch., 
Egypt,   Mass".,  since   1918. 

Bragg,  Mabel  C,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  80 
Madison    Ave.,    Newtonville,    Mass. 

Braham,  W.  J.,  A.  M.  '13;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
North    Platte,    Nebr.,    since    1922. 

Braman,  W.  J.,  B.  S.  '15  Columbia  U. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  g  Chestnut  Ave.,  Dans- 
ville,    N.   Y.,   since   1919. 

Brame,  S.  M.,  A.  B.  '02,  La.  State  Univ. ; 
Prin.,  Bolton  H.  S.,  Alexandria,  La.,  since 
igio. 

Brandenberg,  W.  A.,  A.  M.  '03,  Ph.B.  '22, 
Drake  Univ.;  Pres.  Kans.  State  Teh.  Col., 
1801  S.  Broadway,  Pittsburg,  Kans.,  since 
1913. 

Brandon,  R.  H.,  Supt.  .of  Sch.,  New  Paris, 
Ohio. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


377 


Brandt,  Rose  K.,  A.  B.  '14,  U.  of  Wis.; 
M.  A.  '23,  Columbia  U. ;  State  Super. 
Rural  Sch.,  State  Dept.  of  Pub.  Inst., 
Helena,    Mont.,    since    1923. 

Branigan,  John,  B.  Sc,  '15,  Univ.  of  Nebr., 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Gilbert,  Ariz.,  since  1924. 

Braughton,  Garnett,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hot 
Springs,   Ark. 

Breckner,  Elmer  L.,  A.  B.  and  B.  S.  '13, 
Univ.  of  Mo.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg., 
Olympia,    Wash.,    since    1920. 

Brendlinger,  Margaret  R.,  A.  B.  '95,  Vassar 
Col.;  Prin.  of  Hillside  Sch.,  Norwalk, 
Conn.,    since    1908. 

Brennan,  P.  Frank,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1557 
Oneida   St.,    Shamokin,   Pa. 

Brennan,  P.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Dickson  City, 
Pa. 

Brewer,  A.  L.,  L.  I.  and  A.  B.  '02,  Peabody 
Col.  for  Tchrs.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Tallapoosa, 
Ga.,   since    1917. 

Bridges,  D.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  9  Crescent 
Ave.,    Fort    Thomas,    Ky. 

Bright,  Ira  J.,  B.  S.  '16,  State  Norm.  Col.; 
M.  A.  '18,  Teh.  Col.  Columbia  U. ;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Times  Bldg.,  Leavenworth,  Kans., 
since    1919. 

Bright,  Orville  T.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Dolton, 
111. 

Brinkley,  E.  S.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1  Pel- 
ham   PL,    Norfolk,   Va. 

Brinser,  Ira  S.,  A.  B.  '20,  Franklin  &  Mar- 
shall Col.;  Ed.  M.  *2i,  Harvard  U. ;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Lewes,  Dela.,  since  1921. 

Bristow,  William  H.,  B.  S.,  '20,  Mo.  State 
Teh.  Col.;  A.  M.  '22,  T.  C.  Columbia  U.; 
Supg.    Prin.,    Milford,    Pa.,    since    1923. 

Brock,  George  William,  A.  B.  '00,  LL.  D. 
'23,  Univ.  of  Ala.;  LL.  D.  '17,  Howard 
Col.;  Pres.  State  Norm.  Sch.,  Livingston, 
Ala. 

Brockman,  Myron  E.,  A.  B.,  '03,  Furman 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  378,  Chester, 
S.   C. 

Brodhead,  John  C.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
38    Montclair    Ave.,    Roslindale,    Mass. 

Bronsky,  Amy,  State  Norm.  Sch.,  Superior, 
Wis. 

Brooks,  Maro  S.,  A.  B.  '92,  Tufts;  Supt.  ol 
Sch.,    Medford,    Mass.,   since    1921. 

Brooks,  R.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  812  Highlow 
Ave.,   Albany,   Ga. 

Brooks,  T.  Latimer,  B.  A.  '06,  Dickinson; 
M.  A.  '15,  Columbia;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Somer- 
ville,    N.    J.,    since    1921. 

Brooks,  W.  G.,  B.  E.  '07,  Nebr.  State  Tchrs. 
Col.;  A.  B.  '10,  York  Col.;  A.  M.  '15, 
Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia  U. ;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
917    Platte   Ave.,    York,    Nebr.,   since    1922. 

Broome,  Edwin  C,  Ph.  B.  '97,  A.  M.  '98, 
Brown  Univ.;  Ph.  D.  '02,  Columbia  Univ.; 
LL.  B.  '07,  St.  Lawrence  Univ.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Philadelphia,    Pa.,    since    1921. 

Brothers,  C.  A.,  A.  B.  'n,  Lake  Forest  U. ; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   H.   S.,   D wight,   111. 


Brown,  Bertram  D.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  141  Cen- 
tral   St.,    Hudson,    Mass. 

Brown,  C.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Albert  Lea, 
Minn. 

Brown,  Emmett,  B.  A.  '96,  Univ.  of  Nash- 
ville; Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.,  Chambers  Bldg., 
Cleburne,    Tex.,   since    1913. 

Brown,  Frederic  N.,  A.  B.  '99,  Harvard  U.; 
Supervising  Prin.,  Verona,  N.  J.,  since 
1903. 

Brown,  George  Earl,  A.  M.  '19,  Denver 
Univ.;  A.  B.  '13,  Colo.  State  Tchrs.  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Greeley,   Colo.,  since  1916. 

Brown,  Harry  Alvin,  A.  B.  '03,  Bates  Col. ; 
A.  B.  '07,  A.  M.  '23,  Univ.  of  Colo.; 
Pres.  State  Norm.  Sch.,  440  W.  New  York 
Ave.,   Oshkosh,  Wis.,   since   1917. 

Brown,  Helen  L.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Tomb- 
stone,   Ariz. 

Brown,  Howard  E.,  A.  B.  '10,  Syracuse 
Univ.;  A.  M.  '23,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  517  Ohio  St.,  Medina,  N.  Y., 
since    igi8. 

Brown,  J.  Stanley,  A.  B.  '89,  LL.  D.  '14, 
Denison  Univ. ;  Pres.  State  Col.  for  Teh., 
Col.    Bldg.,    De   Kalb,   111.,    since    igig. 

Brown,  R.  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Marshall,  Minn. 

Brown,  Raymond  N.,  B.  S.  '09,  Amherst; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  256,  Thomaston,  Conn, 
since   1921. 

Brown,  Roy  W.,  '16,  State  Normal  Diploma; 
Super.  Prin.  of  Sch.,  Bergenfield,  N..  J., 
since    1919. 

Brown,  Stella  E.,  B.  S.  '18,  Teh.  Col.,  Co- 
lumbia U.;  Supr.  Norm.  Elem.  Dept.,  Md. 
State  Normal,  Seven  Belmar  Ave.,  Balti- 
more,   Md.,    since    1924. 

Brown,  T.  N.,  A.  B.  '13,  Ohio  State  U. ; 
Supt.  of  Village  Rural  Schs.,  Reynolds- 
burg,    Ohio,    since    1920. 

Brown,   V.   I.,   Supt.  of  Sch.,  Watseka,   111. 

Browning,  F.  L.,  Pres.  State  Tchrs.  Assn.; 
Trenton,    Tenn. 

Broyles,  V.  L.,  A.  M.  Tchrs.  Col.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,   Fulton,   Ky.,   since   1921. 

Brubacher,  A.  R.,  B.  A.  '97,  Ph.  D.  '02,  Yale 
Univ.;  Pres.  N.  Y.  State  Col.  for  Teh., 
State  Col.,  Albany,    N.    Y.,   since   19*5- 

Bruce,  C.  H,  A.  B.  '92,  Emery;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Macon,    Ga.,    since    1912. 

Bruner,   Charles,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Kewanee,  111. 

Bruner,  Herbert  Bascom,  A.  B.  '13,  Central 
Col.,  Fayette,  Mo.;  A.  M.  '15,  Mo.  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Okmulgee,  Okla.,  since  1918. 

Brunyate,  E.  R.,  A.  B.  '03,  A.  M.  '06,  Dick- 
inson; County  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court  House, 
Cape   May,   N.   J.,  since   1922. 

Bryan,   James   E.,   A.    B.   '90,   Johns  Hopkins 

Univ.;   Ph.   D.   '08,   Univ.   of  Pa.;  Supt.  of 

Sch.,  412  Linden  St.,  Camden,  N.  J.,  since 
1899. 

Bryan,  William  L.,  Pres.  Ind.  Univ.,  Bloom- 
ington,    Ind. 


378 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Bubeck,  Allan  E.,  Ph.  B.  '13,  Dickinson  Col.; 

A.  M.  '24,  Columbia  Univ. ;  Supvg.  Prin. 
Public  Sen..  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Schuylkill  Ha- 
ven,   Pa.,    since    1921. 

Buchner,  Edward  Franklin,  A.  B.  '89,  Lean- 
der  Clark  Col.;  Ph.  D.  '93,  Yale  Univ., 
LL.  D.  '24,  Univ.  of  Ala. ;  Dir.  of  Col. 
for  Tchrs.,  Prof,  of  Ed.,  Johns  Hopkins 
U.,   Baltimore,   Md.,  since    1908. 

Buck,  Frank  P.,  A.  B.  '04,  Univ.  of  Mich.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O.  Box  295,  St.  Johns, 
Mich.,    since    1910. 

Buckley,  Horace  Mann,  A.  B.  '08,  North- 
western Univ.;  M.  A.  '12,  Columbia  Univ.; 

B.  D.  '13,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  6701  Delmar  Ave.,  University  City, 
Mo.,    since    1916. 

Bu  Dahn,  L.  A.,  B.  S.,  M.  A.,  Columbia 
Teachers  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Asbury 
Park,    N.    J.,    since    1922. 

Buell,  R.  A.,  B.  A.  '01,  Beloit,  Wis.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  H.  S.,  Watertown,  Wis.,  since 
1924. 

Buellesfield,  Henry,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1001 
Douglass   Ave.,    Yankton,    S.    Dak. 

Bugbee,  L.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  West  Hart- 
ford, Conn. 

Bukcr,  W.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Meredith, 
N.    H. 

Bullock,  Agnes  I.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Eu- 
reka, 111. 

Bunce,  Edgar  F.,  B.  S.  '16,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Co- 
lumbia U. ;  Supr.  Prin.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Mt. 
Holly,   N.  J.,  since  1918. 

Burdge,  Howard  G.,  B.  A.  '00,  Allegheny 
Col. ;  M.  A.  '-20,  Ph.  D.  '22,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Prin.  State  Norm.  Sch.,  Fredonia, 
N.   Y.,  since   1922. 

Burdick,  Ernest  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Middle- 
town,    N.    Y. 

Burdick,  Raymond  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  85  So. 
Main    St.,    Ticonderoga,    N.    Y. 

Burdick,  William,  State  Super,  of  Physical 
Ed.,    2706    Elsinor   Ave.,    Baltimore,    Md. 

Burford,  A.   D.,   Supt.  of  Sch.,   Hanna,  Wyo. 

Burger,  M.  N.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lawton,  Mich. 

Burke,  Jeremiah  Edmund,  B.  A.  '90,  M.  A. 
'93,  D.  L.  '15,  Colby  Col.;  LL.  D.  '22, 
Villa  Nova  Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  15  Beacon 
St.,    Boston,    Mass.,    since    192 1. 

Burling,  B.  B.,  747-5ist  St.,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Burnett,  John  M.,  B.  S.  '12,  Univ.  of  Ala.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Tuscaloosa,  Ala.,  since  1924. 

Burnett,  Marguerite  H.,  State  Dept.  of  Pub. 
Inst.,    H.    S.    Bldg.,    Wilmington,    Del. 

Burns,  L.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  8,  Mar- 
tinsburg,     W.     Va. 

Burrell,  J.  S.,  B.  S.  '06,  Iowa  State;  Co. 
Supt.    of    Sch.,    Olivia,    Minn.,    since    1923. 

Burrill,  Fred  W.,  A.  B.  '97,  Bates  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  Hall,  Augusta,  Maine, 
since    1922. 

Burris,  Carl,  B.  S.  in  Ed.,  '14,  Tchrs.  Col. 
'21,  Warrensburg,  Mo.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Sloan,   Iowa. 


Burt,  R.  F.,  A.  B.  '22,  Oklahoma  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,   Glenpool,   Okla.,   since  1922. 

Burt,  Rose  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bessemer, 
Mich.,   since   1911. 

Burton,  Marion  L.,  Pres.  Univ.  of  Mich., 
Ann   Arbor,    Mich. 

Burtsfield,  F.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  West  La- 
Fayette,    Ind. 

Bush,  George  C,  A.  B.  '98,  A.  M.,  Ind. 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  South  Pasadena, 
Calif,    since   1907. 

Buswell,  G.  T.,  A.  B.  '13,  York  Col.,  Nebr. ; 
A.  M.  '16,  Ph.  D.  '20,  Univ.  of  Chicago; 
Asst.  Prof,  of  Ed.,  U.  of  Chicago,  Chicago, 
111.,    since    1920. 

Butler,  L.  A.,  Ph.  B.  '13,  Univ.  of  Chicago; 
M.  A.  '19,  Columbia  Univ.;  M.  Ed.  '21, 
Mich.,  Normal  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Grand 
Rapids,    Mich. 

Butler,  S.  R.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  432  Eustis 
St.,    Huntsville,    Ala. 

Butterfield,  E.  W.,  State  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Con- 
cord,   N.    H. 

Button,  F.  C,  A.  M.  '08,  Bethany  Col.; 
Pres.  Morehead  St.  Norm.  Sch.,  Morehead, 
Ky.,   since   1923. 

Byrd,  C.  E.,  '83,  Univ.  of  Va. ;  Parish  Supt. 
of    Sch.,    Shreveport,    La.,    since    1907. 

Byrne,  Christopher  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  300 
Maloney    Bldg.,    Ottawa,    111. 

Byrne,  Lee,  Assoc.  Prof,  of  Ed.,  Univ.  of 
Iowa,  416  W.  i22d  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y., 
since    1922. 

Byrns,  William  D.,  Ph.  B.  '13,  U.  of  Wis.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  200  Cayuga  St.,  Iron  River, 
Mich.,    since    1918. 

Cade,  George  N.,  Col.  of  Ed.,  U.  of  Ark., 
Fayetteville,    Ark. 

Caldwell,  L.  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hammond, 
Ind. 

Caldwell,  Otis  W.,  Dir.  Lincoln  Sch.,  Dir. 
Inst,  of  Child  Welfare  Res.,  Tchrs.  Col., 
Columbia  U.,  425  W.  123d  St.,  New  York, 
N.    Y. 

Callahan,  John,  State  Supt.  of  Pub.  Inst., 
Madison,    Wis. 

Cameron,  E.  T.,  Ex.  Sec,  Mich.  St.  Tchrs. 
Assn.,   809   Prudden   Bldg.,   Lansing,    Mich. 

Cameron,  Norman  W.,  A.  B.  '95,  A.  M.  'oo, 
Washington  Col.;  Ph.  D.  '12,  U.  of  Pa., 
Supt.   of   Sch.,    Pottstown,    Pa.,   since    1924. 

Cammack,  Ira  I.,  A.  B.  '84,  Earlham  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  201  Library  Bldg.,.  Kansas 
City,    Mo.,   since    1913. 

Camp,  Frederick  Stanley,  B.  S.  '91,  Lehigh; 
N.  Y.  Univ.  '10;  State  Super,  of  Elemen- 
tary  Educ,    Hartford,    Conn.,    since    ig22. 

Camp,  Harold  L.,  B.  A.  '14,  Grinnell  Col.; 
M.  A.  '17,  Cornell  U. ;  Ph.  D.  '21,  State 
Univ.  of  Iowa;  Assoc.  Prof.  Ed.,  Univ.  of 
N.  Dak.,  Box  431,  Univ.  Sta.,  Grand 
Forks,    N.    Dak.,   since    1923. 

Campbell,  Doak  S.,  B.  A.  'n,  Ouachita  Col.; 
Pres.  Central  Col.,  Conway,  Ark.,  since 
1920. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


379 


Campbell,  Paul  N.,  Prin.  of  H.  S.(  Okmul- 
gee,   Okla. 

Campton,  C.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Two  Har- 
bors,   Minn. 

Canine,  Edwin  N.,  A.  B.  '01,  Ind.  State 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  East  Chicago,  Ind., 
since    1904. 

Cannon,  Arthur  M.,  Ph.  B.  '98,  DePauw 
Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hood  River,  Ore- 
gon,  since    1920. 

Cantwell,  J.  W.,  A.  B.  '93,  Baylor  U. ;  A.  B. 
'94,  Yale  Univ. ;  A.  M.  '02,  LL.  D.  '20, 
Baylor  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1105  Holli- 
day    St.,    Wichita    Falls,    Tex.,    since    1923. 

Capen,  Samuel  Paul,  A.  B.  '98,-  Tufts  Col. ; 
A.  M.  '00,  Harvard  U. ;  Ph.  D.  '02,  U.  of 
Pa.;  LL.  D.  '20,  Lafayette  Col.;  Chanc. 
Univ.  of  Buffalo,  3435  Main  St.,  Buffalo, 
N.    Y.,  since  1922. 

Carlson,  E.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Ann  Arbor, 
Mich. 

Carlson,    E.    W.,    Supt.    of    Sch.,    Champion, 

Mich. 

Carmical,  R.  C,  A.  B.  '15,  Hendrix  Col.; 
Co.    Supt.   Sch.,   Rison,  Ark.,   since   1920. 

Carmichael,  Omer,  A.  B.  '14,  Univ.  of  Ala., 
Supt.  of  Pub.  Sch.,  Box  687,  Selma,  Ala., 
since    ig20. 

Carney,  Mabel,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia  Univ., 
New  York,   N.   Y. 

Carpenter,  D.  E.,  Dean,  I.  C.  S.,  Scranton, 
Pa. 

Carpenter,  D.  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Millers  Falls, 

Mass. 

Carr,  Ernest  Palmer,  A.  B.  '01,  Brown 
Univ.;  S.  M.  '05,  Brown  Univ.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Marlboro,    Mass.,    since    1912. 

Carr,   J.    P.,   Supt.   of   Sch.,   Vicksburg,    Miss. 

Carr,  J.  W.,  State  Normal  Sch.,  Murray,  Ky. 

Carrick,  Charles  H.,  A.  B.,  Univ.  of  Mich.; 
Supt.  cf  Sch.,   Charlotte,  Mich.,  since  1906. 

Carrick,  C.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bellevue, 
Ohio. 

Carrothers,  George  E.,  B.  A.  '09,  Ind.  Univ.; 
M.  A.  '15  T.  C.  Columbia  U. ;  Ph.  D.  '24, 
Columbia  U. ;  Prof,  of  Ed.,  Dept.  of  Sch. 
Admin.,  Ohio  U.,  Athens,  Ohio,  since 
1924. 

Carter,  Ewell  M.,  B.  S.  in  Educ,  '05,  Univ. 
of  Mo. ;  Secretary,  Mo.  State  Teachers 
Assn.,    Columbia,    Mo.,    since    1915. 

Carter,  Mrs.  Susanne  H,  '96  Ore.  State 
Normal;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Jacksonville, 
Ore.,    since    1920. 

Case,  Egbert  A.,  A.  B.  '04,  A.  M.  '08,  Bates 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Windham  H.  S., 
Willimantic,    Conn.,   since    1910. 

Casey,  Charles  C,  A.  M.  '06,  Univ.  of  Den- 
ver; A.  B.  '04,  Ark.  Conference  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Longmont,  Colo.,  since  1913. 

Casey,  William  V.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Boulder, 
Colo.,    since    1884. 

Cassady,  E.  N.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Brookfield, 
111. 


Cassidy,  M.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  169  Ky.  Ave., 
Lexington,    Ky. 

Castelo,  J.  W.,  Supt.   of  Sch.,  La   Moille,  111. 

Cawthon,  W.  S.,  State  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Talla- 
hassee,   Fla. 

Cesander,    P.    K,    Supt.,    Rushford,    Minn. 

Chace,  S.  Howard,  A.  B.  '93,  A.  M.  '96, 
Brown  Univ. ;  '02,  Hyannis  State  Nor- 
mal Sch.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Beverly,  Mass., 
since    1913. 

Chadwick,  Raymond  D.,  Ph.B.  '09,  Frank 
Col.;  M.  A.  '24,  Columbia  U. ;  Prin.  Mor- 
gan Park  High  and  Stowe  Sch.,  Morgan 
Park,    Duluth,    Minn.,    since    1916. 

Chalmers,  James,  A.  B.  '88,  Ph.D.  '89,  Eu- 
reka Col.;  D.  D.  '02,  Wheaton  Col.; 
LL.  D.  '04  West.  Mich.  Col.;  Fellow, 
'97-9,  U.  of  St.  Andrews,  Scotland;  Prin. 
St.  Norm.  Sch.,  Framingham,  Mass.,  since 
1917. 

Chamberlain,  Arthur  H.,  B.  S.  '03,  A.  M. 
'04,  Columbia  U. ;  Ex.  Sec.  Calif.  Tchrs. 
Assn.  and  Mg.  Ed.,  Sierra  Ed.  News,  933 
Phelan  Bldg.,  San  Francisco,  Calif.,  since 
1912. 

Chambers,  Will  Grant,  A.  B.  '94,  M.  A.  '97, 
Litt.  D.  '17,  Lafayette  Col.;  B.  S.  '95, 
Ind.  St.  Norm.  Sch.;  Dean,  Sch.  of  Ed., 
Pa.  St.   Col.,  State  College,  Pa.,  since  1921. 

Champion,  Charles  F.,  Supvg.  Prin.,  Morris 
Plains,    N.    J. 

Chandler,  F.  H.,  A.  B.  'n,  Morningside 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Sheldon,  Iowa,  since 
1920. 

Chandler,  J.  A.  C,  Pres.  College  of  William 
and    Mary,    Williamsburg,    Va. 

Chapman,  Ira  T.,  A.  B.  '03,  Ohio  Wesleyan 
Univ.,  A.  M.  '05,  Harvard  Univ. ;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  417  So.  Broad  St.,  Elizabeth,  N.  J., 
since    1923. 

Chapman,  J.  Virgil,  State  Supr.  Rural  Schs., 
State    Capitol,    .Frankfort,    Ky.,    since    1916. 

Chase,  W.  Linwood,  A.  B.  '20,  Univ.  of 
Maine;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Boothbay  Harbor, 
Maine,    since    1924. 

Chase,  Willard  O.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Old  Town, 
Maine. 

Cherry,  H.  H,  L.  L.  D.,  Pres.  Western  St. 
Tchrs.  Col.  and  Norm.  Sch.,  Bowling 
Green,    Ky.,    since    1907, 

Cherry,  T.  C,  A.  B.  '92,  So.  Normal  Sch.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bowling  Green,  Ky.,  since 
I9°5- 

Chesney,  Mattie,  Co.  Supt.,  Wilber,  Nebr., 
since    1923. 

Chew,  Samuel  L.,  B.  S.  '05,  Temple  Univ.; 
A.  M.  '16,  Univ.  of  Pa.;  Dist.  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  Northwest  Sch.,  15th  &  Race  Sts., 
Philadelphia,    Pa.,    since    1906. 

Child,  George  N.,  B.  S.,  Univ.  of  Utah; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  313  City  &  County  Bldg., 
Salt    Lake    City,    Utah,    since    1920. 

Chittenden,  Harold  E.,  A.  B.  '09,  Yale  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Naugatuck,  Conn.,  since 
1918. 


380 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Churchill,  J.  A.,  A.  B.,  M.  A.,  Ohio  North- 
ern Univ.,  M.  A.,  Univ.  of  Oregon;  Supt. 
of  Pub.  Inst.,  Capitol  Bldg.,  Salem,  Ore- 
gon,  since   1913- 

Clark,  C.  I.,  Supt.,  Drawer  N.,  Stambaugh, 
Mich. 

Clark,  Charles  S.,  A.  B.  '82,  A.  M.,  Dart- 
mouth; LL.  B.,  Geo.  Wash.  Univ.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  75  Munroe  St.,  Somerville,  Mass., 
since    1908. 

Clark,   E.    L.,    Supt.   of  Sch.,   Chelsea,   Mich. 

Clark,  Henry  G.,  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  208 
So.   Hamline  Ave.,   Chicago,   111. 

Clark,  John  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  20  N.  St. 
James    St.,    Waukegan,    111. 

Clark,  Louise,  B.  S.  '02,  Columbia  Univ. ; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court  House,  Santa 
Rosa,     Calif.,    since    1923- 

Clark,  M.  G.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  101  City  Bldg., 
Sioux    City,    Iowa. 

Clark,  Mary  R.,  Prin.  Sch.  Dept.,  State 
Hosp.   for   Crip.    Children,    St.   Paul,    Minn. 

Clark,  Randolph  Lee,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  629  N. 
Dixon    St.,    Gainesville,    Tex. 

Clark,  Ridgley  C,  B.  A.  '08,  Bowdoin  Col- 
lege; Supt.  of  Sch.,  Seymour,  Conn.,  since 
1917. 

Clarke,  Ernest  P.,  B.  S.  '83,  Mich.  Ag.  Col., 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  1922  Niles  Ave.,  St.  Joseph, 
Mich.,    since    1899. 

Clarke,  George  B.,  A.  B.  '03,  Harvard  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  East  Pepperell,  Mass.,  since 
1920. 

Claytor,  R.  H.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hillsboro, 
N.    C. 

Clemens,  Paul  B.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Sch. 
Admin.    Bldg.,    Milwaukee,   Wis. 

Clement,  J.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  339  W.  8th, 
Junction     City,     Kans. 

Clements,  M.  K.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  211  East 
St.,   Athens,   Ala. 

Clendenen,  Taylor  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  811 
26th    St.,    Cairo,    111.,    since    1886. 

Clerk,  F.  E.,  Ph.  B.  '03,  Yale  Univ.;  LL. 
B.  '10,  Lincoln-Jefferson;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
New  Trier  Township  High  School,  Glen- 
coe,    111.,   since   1923. 

Clift,  Gilbert  B.,  A.  B.  '13,  Okla.  Baptist; 
Supt.    of    Sch.,    Bartlesville,    Okla. 

Clifton,  A.  R.,  Ph.  B.  '08,  U.  of  Wis.; 
M.  A.  '18,  U.  of  So.  Calif.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Monrovia,    Calif.,    since    1918. 

Clough,  G.  O.,  B.  A.  '08,  U.  of  Tex.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,   Box   266,   Tyler,   Tex.,  since   1920. 

Clowes,  Frederick  Arthur,  B.  S.  A.  '08,.  To- 
ronto Univ.;  Dir.  Voc.  Ed.,  Hilo,  Hawaii, 
since    1917. 

Coats,  Marion,  A.  B.  '07,  Vassar  Col. ;  M.  A. 
'12,  Radcliffe  Col.;  Prin.  of  Bradford 
Academy,    Bradford,   Mass.,   since    1918. 

Cobb,   B.   B.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Waco,   Tex. 

Coblentz,  C.  R.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Eaton, 
Ohio. 


Coburn,  William  G.,  A.  B.  '90,  Univ.  of 
Mich.;  LL.  D.  '23,  Olivet  Col.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  135  College  St.,  Battle  Creek,  Mich., 
since    1895. 

Cocking,  Walter  D.,  B.  A.  '13,  Des  Moines 
Col.;  M.  A.  '22,  State  Univ.  of  Iowa; 
Dir.  of  Jr.  Ed.,  416  Russell  Bldg.,  San 
Antonio,    Tex.,    since    1922. 

Cody,  Frank,  Pd.  M.  '12,  Mich.  State  Norm. 
Col.;  M.  A.  '24  Univ.  of  Mich.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  1354  Bdwy.  Ave.,  Detroit,  Mich., 
since   1919. 

Coffman,  Lotus  D.,  B.  A.  '06,  M.  A.  '10, 
Ind.  Univ.;  Ph.  D.  '11,  Columbia  Univ.; 
LL.  D.  '22,  Ind.  Univ.;  Press.  Univ.  of 
Minn.,     Minneapolis,     Minn. 

Cole,  Albert  S.,  A.  B.  '96,  Colby  Col.;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Grafton,    Mass.,    since    192 1. 

Cole,  Ernest  E.,  5035  N.  Mozart  St.,  Chi- 
cago,   111. 

Cole,  Thomas  R.,  Ph.  B.  '02;  A.  M.  '03,  Up- 
per la.  U. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Central  Bldg., 
Seattle,   Wash. 

Coleman,  W.  H.,  A.  B.  '09,  Nebr.  Wes. ; 
A.  M.  '16,  U.  of  Nebr.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Central  Sch.  Bldg.,  Rawlins,  Wyo.,  since 
1923. 

Collicott,  J.  G.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  64  15th  Ave., 
Columbus,    Ohio. 

Collins,    E.    A.,    Prin.    H.    S.,   Bessemer,    Ala. 

Collins,  J.  E.,  A.  B.  '03,  Miami  University, 
230  W.  High  St.,  Oxford,  Ohio,  since 
1924. 

Collins,   Thomas,   Vancouver,   B.    C,    Canada. 

Colson.  E.  P.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  North  Scitu- 
ate,    R.    I. 

Condon,  John  F.,  A.  B.  '82,  N.  Y.  City  Col.; 
A.  M.  '02,  Fordham  U. ;  Ph.  D.  '04,  N.  Y. 
U. ;  Prin.  P.  S.  12  Bronx,  Prof,  of  Ed., 
Col.  of  New  Rochelle,  2550  Frisby  Ave., 
New   York,    N.    Y.,    since    1902. 

Condon,  Randall,  J.  A.,  A.  B.  '86,  A.  M.  '89, 
LL.  D.  '13,  Colby  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Denton  Bldg.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  since  1913. 

Congdon,  Fayette  K.,  A.  B.  '94,  A.  M.  '97, 
Syracuse  U. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Northamp- 
ton,   Mass.,   since   1905. 

Coniff,  J.  Robinson,  State  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Ba- 
ton   Rouge,    La. 

Conn,  U.  S.,  Pres.  State  Teachers  Col., 
Wayne,   Nebr. 

Conner,  J.  Carl,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Britton,  Okla. 

Considine,  M.  M.  St.  John,  A.  B.  '12,  Mt. 
St.  Mary's  Col. ;  A.  M.  '20,  Fordham 
Univ.;  Dean,  Mt.  St.  Mary's  Col.;  N. 
Plainfield,    N.    J.,    since    1912. 

Converse,  Frank  E.,  B.  L.  '88,  Univ.  of 
Mich.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Beloit,  Wis.,  since 
1897. 

Conwell,  Russell  H.,  LL.  B.  '66,  Albany 
Law  Sch. ;  D.  D.  '98,  LL.  D.  '00,  Temple 
Univ. ;  Pres.  of  Temple  Univ.,  Philadel- 
phia,   Pa.,    since    1884. 

Cook,  A.  F.,  B.  A.  'io,,  Ripon  Col.;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Hinsdale,    111.,  since    1919. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


381 


Cook,  Albert  S.,  A.  B.  '95,  A.  M.  '06, 
Princeton  Univ. ;  Litt.  D.  '24,  Univ.  of 
Md.,  '23,  St.  Johns  Col.;  '23,  Western 
Md.  Col.;  State  Supt.  of  S&h.,  15  Aig- 
burth   Rd.,   Towson,    Md.,   since   1920. 

Cook,  Jason  O.,  A.  B.  '06  A.  M.  '07,  Brown 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Amherst,  Mass., 
since    1920. 

Cook,  L.  T.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  sog  W.  Lindsey, 
Breckenridge,    Tex. 

Cookson,  Charles  W.,  A.  B.,  B.  Ped.  '95, 
A.  M.  '07,  Ped.  D.  'is,  Ohio  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Central  Ward  Sch.,  Ur- 
bana,    Ohio,    since    1924. 

Cooley,  R.  L.,  M.  A.  '24,  Univ.  of  Wis.; 
Dir.  Voc.  Ed.,  309  6th  St.,  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,    since    1912. 

Coon,  Charles  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wilson, 
N.    C. 

Cooper,  Charles  Hermance,  A.  B.  '77,  A.  M. 
'80,  Dartmouth  Col. ;  Pres.  Mankato  State 
Teachers  Col.,  Mankato,  Minn.,  since  1898. 

Cooper,  Clarence  G.,  B.  S.  '11,  Teachers 
Col.,  Columbia  Univ. ;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Towson,    Md.,   since   1920. 

Cooper,  Edwin  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Guttenberg, 
Iowa. 

Cooper,  Harry  P.,  1816  Elliot  Ave.,  Minne- 
apolis,   Minn. 

Cooper,  William  John,  A.  B.  '06,  M.  A.  '17, 
Univ.  of  Calif.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2525  Tuo 
lumne   St.,    Fresno,    Calif.,    since    1921. 

Cooper,  Wilson  C,  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Sey- 
mour and   Knox   Sts.,   Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Cope,   Alfred    B.,   A.    B.   '04,    Campbell  Col. ; 

A.  M.  '06,  U.  of  Kans. ;  Dept.  of  Ed.; 
Evansville  Col.,  Evansville,  Ind.,  since 
1921. 

Cornell,  Clare  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Shaker 
Heights,    Cleveland,    Ohio. 

Corning,  H.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  813  Tascosa, 
Trinidad,    Colo. 

Corson,  David  B.,  Pd.  M.  '93,  Pd.  D.  '13, 
Ph.  D.  '24,  N.  Y.  U.;  LL.  D.  '21,  Alfred 
U. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  51  Berkeley  Ave.,  New- 
ark,  N.   J.,   since   1918. 

Cortright,  E.  Everett,  M.  A.  '22,  N.  Y. 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  886  Main  St., 
Bridgeport,    Conn.,    since    1922. 

Cory,  Frank  M.,  A.  B.  '17,  Ind.  U. ;  A.  M. 
'23,  Tchrs.  Col.;  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  221 
S.    Main   St.,   Oxford,   Ohio,   since    1923. 

Cotton,  Carl,  A.  B.  '00,  Colby  Col.;  LL.  M. 
'06,  U.  of  Maine;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  School 
Dept.,   Derry,   N.   H.,   since   1920. 

Cotton,    F.    A.,    A.    B.    '02,    Butler    Col.;    Ph. 

B.  '02,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  LL.  D.  '05, 
Franklin  Col. ;  Pres.  Northern  Ariz.  State 
Norm.,    Flagstaff,    Ariz.,    since    1924. 

Cottrill,  Fred  M.,  Prin.  H.  S.,  Salem,  W. 
Va. 

Cougill,  J.  R.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Chariton,  Iowa. 

Coulomb,  Charles  A.,  B.  S.  '05,  Temple 
Univ.;  Ph.  D.  '10,  Univ.  of  Pa.;  Asst. 
Dist.  Supt.,  4249  Girard  Ave.,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,   since    1916. 


Coulter,   B.    L.,    Supt.   of   Sch.,    New   Albany, 

Miss. 

Coultrap,  Harry  M.,  A.  B.  '06,  U.  of  Cok). ; 
A.  M.  '14,  Ohio  U. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  10 
Anderson    Blvd.,    Geneva,    111.,    since    1912. 

Courtis,  Stuart  A.,  B.  S.  '19,  M.  A.  '21, 
Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia  U. ;  Prof,  of  Ed., 
Sch.  of  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Mich.,  Ann  Arbor, 
Mich.,    since    1924. 

Cousins,  A.  B.,  Pres.  S.  Tex.  State  Tchrs. 
Col.,   Kingsville,   Tex. 

Cowart,  Ralph  W.,  M.  A.  '21,  T.  C.  Colum- 
bia U. ;  B.  S.  '14,  U.  of  Ala.;  B.  Pd.  '10, 
Normal  Col.,  Troy,  Ala.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Box    71,    Albany,    Ala.,    since    1915. 

Cox,  Harry  S.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  Bldg., 
Covington,    Ky. 

Coxe,  Charles,  A.  B.,  Ph.  B.  '05,  Lafayette 
Univ.,  A.  M.  '12,  Harvard  Univ.;  Supt. 
of    Sch.,    Lewistown,    Pa. 

Coxe,  Warren  W.,  B.  Sc.  '11,  Dakota  Wes- 
leyan  U. ;  Ph.  D.  '23,  Ohio  State  U. ; 
Chief,  Ed.  Measmnts.,  Bur.  St.,  Dept.  of 
Ed.,    Albany,    N.    Y.,    since    1923. 

Craig,  Geo.  W.,  Supv.  Prin.  of  Sch.,  East 
Pittsburgh,    Pa. 

Crandell,  C.  W.,  A.  B.  '19,  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Cadillac,    Mich.,    since    1920. 

Crane,  Arthur  G.,  U.  of  Wyo.,  Laramie, 
Wyo. 

Crane,  Arthur  W.,  A.  M.  '05,  Univ.  of  Chi- 
cago; A.  B.  '03,  Des  Moines  Col.;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,   Creston,   Iowa,   since   1919. 

Cranefield,  Edna,  Aberdeen  Normal,  Di- 
ploma; County  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Redfield, 
S.    Dak.,   since    1920. 

Cranmer,  Clyde  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Kittan- 
ning,    Pa. 

Crann,  J.  H,  Prin.  York  Com.  H.  S., 
Winterset,    Iowa. 

Crawford,  Clarence,  C,  Ph.  B.  '06,  Grove 
City  Col.;  Prin.  Edinboro  St.  Norm.  Sch., 
Edinboro,    Pa.,    since    1921. 

Crawford,    Floyd   W.,    310   S.    4th    St.,    Niles, 

Mich. 

Crawford,  M.  J.,  A.  B.  '23,  Central  Mich. 
Normal  Sch.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Reed  City, 
Mich,   since    1923. 

Creel,   L.   E.,   Supt.   of   Sch.,   Sheffield,   Ala. 

Creswell,  Cordelia  M.,  B.  Pd.  '11,  Grand 
Rapids  Kndgtn.  Tr.  Sch. ;  Sup.  Special 
Classes,  Bd.  of  Ed.,  Strong  Jr.  H.  S. 
Bldg.,    Grand    Rapids,    Mich.,    since    1910. 

Creutz,   L.   R.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Monroe,  Wis. 

Crissman,  Geo.  R.,  411  So.  Holden,  War- 
rensburg,   Mo. 

Crocker,  J.  N.,  Pd.  M.  '13,  T.  C,  Warrens- 
burg,  Mo.;  B.  S.  '20,  Univ.  of  Mo.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Pub.  Libr.  Bldg.,  Sedalia,  Mo., 
since   1924. 

Crockett,  John  A.,  Major,  1786  First  N., 
Logan,   Utah. 

Cross,  H.  A.,  B.  A.  '16,  Grinnell  Col.;  Prin. 
Univ.  Sch.,  Iowa  State  Univ.,  Iowa  City, 
Iowa.,   since   1924. 


382 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Crozier,  Norman  R.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
3408  Cole  Ave.,  Dallas,  Tex. 

Crumb,  Herbert  H.,  A.  B.  '05,  A.  M.  '09, 
Hamilton;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Endicott,  N.  Y., 
since    1913. 

Cubberley,  Ellwood  P.,  A.  B.  '91,  Ind.  U.; 
A.  M.  '02,  Ph.  D.  '05,  Columbia  U. ;  LL. 
D.  '23,  Univ.  of  Iowa;  Dean  Sch.  of  Ed., 
Stanford    University,    Calif.,   since   1898. 

Cummings,  Frank  L.,  A.  B.  '04,  A.  M.  '11, 
U.  of  Chicago;  Supt.  of  Shorewood  Sch., 
Atwater  and  Frederick  Sts.,  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,   since    1923. 

Cummings,  L.  O.,  A.  B.  '10,  A.  M.  '11,  Ed. 
D.  '21,  Harvard  Univ.;  Asst.  Prof,  of 
Educ,  Harvard  Sch.  of  Ed.,  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  since  1921. 

Cunningham,  Helen,  Rural  Supervisor,  Kent 
Co.,  Dover,  Del. 

Cunningham,  J.  N.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Carroll, 
Iowa. 

Cunningham,  R.  J.,  Ex.  Sec.  Mont.  Ed. 
Assn.,    Helena,    Mont. 

Curfman,  Wayne  White,'  A.  M.  '20,  T.  C. 
Columbia  U. ;  Ass't  to  Supt.,  15th  and  N 
St.,    Lincoln,    Nebr.,    since    1920. 

Curtis,  George  H.,  A.  B.  '99,  Albion,  Mich.; 
A.  B.  '04,  A.  M.  '12,  Univ.  of  Mich.; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Alpena,    Mich.,   since   1919- 

Curtis,  John  W.,  8401  Dexter  Blvd.,  Detroit, 
Mich. 

Curtis,  W.  R.,  A.  B.  '08,  Ind.  Univ.;  A.  M. 
'12,  Columbia  Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Alton, 
111.,   since    1921. 

Cushing,  Herbert  L.,  A.  B.  '14,  Grand  Island 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Ord,  Nebr.,  since 
1922. 

Cutright,  Prudence,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
929   State  St.,   La  Crosse,  Wis. 

Cutts,  C.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hanover,   N.  H. 

Dake,  Hattie  C,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  104 
Dewey    St.,    Harvard,    111.,    since    1922. 

Dalche,  August  Victor,  A.  B.  '10,  Tulane 
U.  of  La.;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Orleans 
Parish  Sch.  Bd.  Office,  New  Orleans,  La., 
since    1924. 

Daniel,  Roland  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1500 
Broad  St.,   Columbus,   Ga. 

Dann,  Hollis,  Mus.  D.  '06,  Alfred  U.,  State 
Dir.  of  Music,  3213  N.  Front  St.,  Harris- 
burg,   Pa.,   since   1921. 

Darling,  Frederick  R.,  A.  B.  '03,  Univ.  of 
Chicago,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Dunkirk,  N.  Y., 
since   1916. 

Darling,  William  T.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wau- 
watosa,  Wis. 

Daugherty,  Charles  F.,  B.  S.  '16,  U.  of  Mo.; 
A.  M.  '20,  T.  C.  Columbia  U. ;  State  H. 
S.   Insp.,  Jefferson   City,   Mo.,   since   1923. 

Davee,  H.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  River  Falls, 
Wis. 

Davidson,  W.  M.,  A.  B.  '02,  Univ.  of  Kans. ; 
LL.  D.  '09,  Miami  Univ.;  LL.  D.  '09, 
Univ.  of  Neb.;  LL.  D.  '16,  Bethany  Col.; 
LL.  D.  '17,  Univ.  of  Pitts.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
6814  Thomas  Blvd.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  since 
1914. 


Davies,  John  C,  B.  A.  '05,  Upper  la.  Univ. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  La  Grange,  111.,  since  1922. 

Davies,  W.  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Grandville, 
Mich. 

Davis,  Charles  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Steelton, 
Pa. 

Davis,   C.   R.,  Prin.   High  Sch.,  Auburn,  111. 

Davis,  Chester  P.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  306  Church 
St.,   Alva,    Okla. 

Davis,  Daniel  W.,  Supervising  Prin.,  H.  S. 
Bldg.,  Pitman,   N.  J.,  since   1905. 

Davis,  H.  A.,  A.  B.  '06,  Olivet,  Mich.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Port  Huron,   Mich.,  since   1917. 

Davis,  Hughes  B.,  B.  A.  '17,  Okla.  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  277,  Duncan,  Okla., 
since   1919. 

Davis,  H.  H.,  5316  Pershing  Ave.,  St. 
Louis,  Mo. 

Davis,  John  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Chapel  St., 
Needham,   Mass.,   since   1921. 

Davis,  J.  Thomas,  B.  S.  '20,  A.  and  M.  Col., 
of  Tex.;  A.  B.  '18,  M.  A.  '21,  Univ.  of 
Tex. ;  Dean  John  Tarleton  Agri.  Col., 
Stephenville,   Tex.,   since   1919. 

Davis,  Mary  Dabney,  M.  A.  '24,  T.  C, 
Columbia  U. ;  Grad.  Student  at  Columbia, 
Darien,   Conn. 

Davis,  Morgan  D.,  B.  S.  '20,  Univ.  of  Nebr.; 
Supt.    of    Sch.,    Upton,    Wyo.,    since    1922. 

Davis,  M.  G.,  A.  B.  '14,  Ind.  Univ.;  A.  M. 
'20,  Wis.  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Brooklyn, 
Iowa,   since   1921. 

Davis,  T.  F.,  A.  B.  '16,  N.  W.  Col.;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,   Royal   Oak,   Mich.,   since   1923. 

Davis,  T.  S.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hollidays- 
burg,  Pa. 

Davis,  Walter  B.,  Ped.  D.  '22,  Alfred  Col.; 
Supv.  Prin.,  Madison,  N.  J.,  since  1920. 

Day,  C.  E.,  B.  Ph.  'io,  Drake  Univ.;  M. 
A.  '23,  U.  of  la.;  Supt;  Co.  Sch.,  Aurelia, 
la.,   since    1922. 

Deahl,  J.  N.,  A.  B.  '93,  Harvard  U. ;  Ph.  D. 
'06,  Columbia  U. ;  Hd.  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Prof, 
of  Ed.,  W.  Va.  U.;  442  Park  St.,  Morgan- 
town,   W.   Va.,   since   1901. 

Dean,  H.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  33  W.  Crystal 
Lake  Ave.,    Crystal   Lake,   111. 

Dean,    R.    G.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,    California,   Pa. 

Deardorff,  M.  H.,  Ph.  B.  '11,  A.  M.  '13, 
Dickinson  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  15  Jackson 
Ave.,   Warren,   Pa.,   since    1922. 

DeBell,  W.  H.,  Dept.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  240 
21st.   Ave.,  San  Francisco,   Calif. 

DeButts,  Clarence  E.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
242  N.  Parkside  Ave.,  Chicago,  111. 

De  Camp,  John  A.,  B.  A.  '00,  M.  A.  '06, 
Williams  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  13  Elizabeth 
St.,   Utica,    N.    Y.,   since   1917. 

Decker,  Chas.  E.,  M.  A.  '19,  U.  of  Wis.; 
Supt.  Wethersfield  Sch.,  Kewanee,  111., 
since   1920. 

De  Lay,  Glenn  A.,  Supt.  of,  Sch.,  Neodesha. 
Kans. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


383 


Dellicker,  Helen  Maude,  B.  S.  *i8,  M.  A.  '24, 
T.  C,  Columbia  U. ;  Gram.  Supvr.,  16 
Miller  Stile  Rd.,  Quincy  69,  Mass.,  since 
1918. 

Del  Manzo,  M.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lawrence, 
Kans. 

Delzell,  Earl  B.,  A.  B.  '12,  Highland  Park 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  129  E.  Clarinda  Ave., 
Shenandoah,   la.,  since   1919. 

Dement,  Mrs.  Nettie  B.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Bloomington,    111. 

Dempsey,  John  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  306  S. 
Valley   Ave.,    Olyphant,    Pa. 

Denison,  Edmund  D.,  A.  B.  '99,  N.  W. 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  224  Warren  St., 
Lake   Geneva,   Wis.,   since   1922. 

Denison,  H.  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Zeeland, 
Mich. 

Dennis,  A.  J.,  M.  A.  '07,  Scio,  Mt.  Union; 
Supt.   of   Sch.,   Smithfield,   O.,   since   19 18. 

Dennison,  Gertrude,  B.  A.  '98,  Alfred  Col. ; 
Supv.  Elemen.  Gr.,  Sioux  City,  la.,  since 
1913. 

Denny,  W.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  104  West  8th, 
Anderson,   Ind. 

Densberger,  Frank  C,  A.  B.  '08,  Syracuse 
Univ.;  A.  M.  '21,  Teachers  Col.,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  82  Tremaine  Ave., 
Kenmore,   N.   Y.,  since   1915. 

Derbyshire,  Grant  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  401  E. 
State,    Princeton,    Ind. 

Desmond,  John  J.,  Jr.,  A.  B.  '09,  A.  M.  '10, 
Harvard  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Market 
Squ.,    Chicopee,    Mass. 

Dessureau,  Dora,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court 
House   Bldg.,   Antigo,   Wis.,   since   1923. 

DeWolf,  George  E.,  A.  B.  '12,  Univ.  of 
Nebr. ;  M.  A.  '20,  Harvard  Univ. ;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Plattsmouth,    Nebr.,    since    1921. 

Deyo,  Louis  DeWitt,  B.  S.  '06,  A.  M.  '14, 
Columbia  Univ.;  Co.  Supt.,  52  W.  Union 
Ave.,   Bound    Brook,    N.   J.,   since   1923. 

Dick,  L.  C,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court  House, 
London,    O.,    since    1917. 

Dickey,  Charles  E.,  M.  E.  '93,  Calif.  State 
Normal;  B.  A.  '20,  Univ.  of  Pitts.;  Co. 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  595  Union  Arcade,  Pitts- 
burgh,   Pa.,    since    1922. 

Dickson,  Virgil  E.,  Deputy  Supt.,  1106  City 
Hall,  Oakland,  Calif. 

Diehl,  John  C,  A.  B.  '87,  A.  M.  '03,  Yale; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Library  Bldg.,  Erie,  Pa., 
since   1922. 

Diener,  U.  E.,  B.  S.  '17,  Miami  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  536  E.  Livingston  St., 
Celina,   Ohio,   since   1922. 

Dienst,  Chas.  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Boise,  Idaho. 

Dieterich,  H.  C,  A.  B.  '05,  Ohio  State 
Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2453  Plymouth  Rd., 
Bexley,    Columbus,    Ohio,   since   1924. 

Dietrich,  George  C,  Ph.  B.  '98,  Ohio  State 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  520  W.  Ash  St., 
Piqua,    Ohio,   since   1909. 

Dietrich,  H.  O.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Norristown, 
Pa. 


Dietrich,  John,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  703  9th  Ave., 
Helena,    Mont. 

Diffendafer,  Alton  P.,  '89,  State  Normal, 
Lock  Haven,  Pa. ;  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  101 
Hanover    St.,    Nanticoke,    Pa.,    since    1902. 

Dille,  George  Earle,  B.  S.  '20,  State  Tchrs. 
Col.,  Kirksville,  Mo.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  425 
N.   Clay  St.,   Memphis,  Mo.,  since  1920. 

Dillingham,  Paul,  A.  B.  '13,  Tufts;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  Town  Hall,  Falmouth,  Mass.,  since 
1923. 

Dimmett,  W.  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Rock  Falls, 
111. 

Dinsmore,  E.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  310  W. 
Michigan,    Electra,    Tex. 

Dobson,  W.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Nashville, 
Tenn. 

Dockrill,  James  C,  LL.  B.  '93,  Lake  For- 
rest;  330  E.   22nd  St.,   Chicago,  111. 

Dodd,  H.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  221  S.  17th  St., 
Allentown,  Pa. 

Dodson,  Edwin  Calvin,  A.  .  B.  '04,  Ind. 
Univ.;  A.  M.  '14,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Grand  Ave.  and  16  St.,  Conners- 
ville,    Ind.,    since    1921. 

Dohner,  A.  J.,  A.  M.  '05,  Findlay;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  n  Johnston  St.,  Salem,  N.  J., 
since   1920. 

Dolfinger,  Emma,  Ph.  B.  '03,  U.  of  Chicago ; 
M.  S.  '15,  T.  C.  Columbia  U. ;  Dir.  Health 
Ed.  Div.,  Am.  Child  Hlth.  Assn.,  370  7th 
Ave.,   New  York,   N.   Y.,  since   1922. 

Domitilla,  Mother  M.,  A.  B.  '14,  St.  Mary 
Col. ;  Sup.  Gen.,  St.  Mary  Col.,  Monroe, 
Mich.,  since  1918. 

Dondineau,  Arthur,  Supv.  of  Social  Sciences, 
Yost   Bldg.,    Detroit,    Mich. 

Donley,   H.   H,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Brush,   Colo. 

Dooley,  Donald,  B.  S.  '19,  Bethany  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  430,  St.  Clairsville, 
Ohio,   since   1920. 

Dorr,  John  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Monongahela, 
Pa. 

Dorsey,  Susan  M.,  A.  B.  '77,  Vassar  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  716  Security  Bldg.,  Los 
Angeles,    Calif.,    since    1920. 

Doudna,  E.  G.,  Ph.  B.  '16,  Wis.;  Sec.  State 
Tchrs.  Assn.,  611  Beaver  Bldg.,  Madi- 
son, Wis. 

Dougall,  John  Bernard,  B.  A.  '08,  Adelphi 
Col.;  M.  A.  '24,  Yale  Univ.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  90  Mountain  Ave.,  Summit,  N,  J., 
since  1924. 

Doughton,  Isaac,  A.  B.  '06,  Harvard;  A.  M. 
'22,  Univ.  of  Pa.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Phcenix- 
ville,    Pa.,   since   19 13. 

Douglass,  Bennett  C,  89  N.  Prospect  St., 
Burlington,   Vt. 

Douglass,  Carleton  E.,  Ph.  B.  '99,  Univ.  of 
Chicago;  A.  M.  '17,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Madison  and  Lafayette, 
Baltimore,    Md.,    since    1921. 

Douglass,  Wesley  H,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  White- 
field,  N.  H. 


384 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Douthett,  Walter  R.,  A.  B.  '12,  Ursinus 
Col.;  A.  M.  '20,  U.  of  Pa.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Walnut  St.,   Darby,   Pa.,  since   1922. 

Dow,  H.  E.,  B.  A.  '06,  State  U.  of  la.; 
Supt.   of   Sch.,   Villisca,   la.,   since   1924. 

Dow,  Harold  F.,  B.  S.  '10,  Colby;  Supt.  of 
Sch.  Box  D,  Swampscott,  Mass.,  since 
1920. 

Dowling,  H.  G.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Cullman, 
Ala. 

Drake,  Ellis  H.,  A.  B.  '04,  U.  of  Ind. ;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  503  Peck  Bldg.,  Kalamazoo,  Mich., 
since   1915. 

Drake,  Flora  E.,  M.  A.  '17,  Columbia  U. ; 
B.  A.  'n,  Ind.;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  150 
N.  Meridian  St.,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  since 
1922. 

Drake,  O.  B.,  B.  S.  '02,  Ohio  Northern 
Univ.;  A.  B.  '10,  Denver  Univ.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Canon    City,    Colo.,   since    1919- 

Dressel,  Herman,  B.  L.  '90,  B.  A.  '95,  Nor- 
wich Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  149  Stewart 
Ave.,   Kearney,    N.   J.,   since   1907. 

Driver,    Lee    L.,    A.    B.    '19,    Ind.    Univ.;    B. 

A.  '19,  Earlham  Col.;  LL.  D.  '21,  Wabash 
Col.;  Dir.  of  Rural  Ed.,  State  Dept.  of 
Pub.  Instr.,  711  N.  2nd  St.,  Harrisburg, 
Pa.,   since   1920. 

Drown,  Carrol  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hopedale, 
Mass. 

Drum,  Warren  Nevin,  B.  S.  '14,  A.  M.  '15, 
Teachers  Col.,  Columbia  Univ.;  Prin.  Cen- 
tral State  Normal,  Lock  Haven,  Pa.,  since 
1920. 

Drummond,   Glenn,  A.  B.  '09,  O.  N.  U. ;   A. 

B.  '11,  Antioch;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Belle- 
fontaine,    O.,    since    1923. 

Duboc,  Jessie  L.,  State  Rural  Sch.  Supvr., 
Capitol    Bldg.,    Helena,    Mont. 

Duffey,  H.  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Winchester,  Va. 

Duffield,  Edmund  T.,  A.  B.  '04,  Middlebury 
Col.,  Vt. ;  A.  M.  '08,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  913  S.  5th  Ave.,  Virginia, 
Minn.,   since   1920. 

Duncan,  Gerald  R.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Rock 
Falls,    Iowa. 

Duncan,  J.  F.,  A.  B.  '03,  U.  of  Nebr. ;  Dean 
Corner  Col.,  Hd.  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Bethany, 
Nebr.,   since    1919. 

Dunckel,  O.  E.,  B.  S.  '21,  Mich.  Agr.  Col. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  72,  Sand  Creek,  Mich., 
since   ig22. 

Dunn,  A.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Fort  Collins, 
Colo. 

Durant,  Thomas  J.,  B.  A.  '92,  Upper  la.  U. ; 
Supt.    of    Sch.,    Sumner,    la.,    since    i8gg. 

Dushane,  Donald,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Columbus, 
Ind.  . 

Dwight,  Charles  A.  S.,  B.  A.  '81,  Yale  Col.; 
M.  A.  '01,  N.  Y.  U. ;  M.  A.  '02,  Yale  U. ; 
Ph.  D.  '09,  Boston  U. ;  Hd.  Dept.  of  Ed.; 
Prof,  of  Psycho.,  Keuka  Col.,  Box  126, 
Keuka   Park,    N.    Y.,    since    1923. 

Eagan,  Louella,  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  3726 
Milan  St.,  New  Orleans,  La. 


Eagleson,  J.  O.,  B.  S.  '09,  Muskingum, 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  317  S.  Pickaway  St., 
Circleville,   Ohio,   since   1920. 

Earley,  Albert,  State  Rural  Supv.,  George- 
town, Del. 

Early,  J.  J.,  A.  B.  '01,  Ind.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Box   897,   Sheridan,   Wyo.,   since   1908. 

Earnest,  W.  W.,  A.  B.  '08,  A.  M.  '24,  Univ. 
of  111.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O.  Box  136, 
Champaign,  111.,  since  1908. 

Eaton,  George  D.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Clarion, 
Iowa. 

Eaton,  Gertrude  F.,  1006  Douglas,  Sioux 
City,    Iowa. 

Eaton,  Henry  M.,  B.  A.  '17,  Fremont  Col.; 
M.  Sc.  'oi,  Salins  Univ.;  Co.  Supt.  Pub. 
Inst.,  Court  House,  Omaha,  Nebr.,  since 
1923. 

Eckert,  Paul  Y.,  A.  B.  '06,  Dickinson;  LL. 
B.  '16,  Univ.  of  Ore.;  A.  M.  '20,  Dick- 
inson; Supt.  of  Sch.,  Ocean  Grove,  N. 
J.,  since  1920. 

Eckles,    Isabel    Lancaster,    M.    A.    '23,  State 

Tchrs.    Col.;    State    Supt.    of    Pub.  Inst., 

State    House,    Santa    Fe,    N.    Mex.,  since 
1923. 

Eckles,  Port,  A.  B.  '14,  Hiram  Ohio  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Homestead,  Pa.,  since  1922. 

Eddy,  Arthur  W.,  A.  B.  '04,  Middlebury; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  34  Weybridge  St.,  Middle- 
bury,   Vt.,    since    ign. 

Eddy,  Theo.  V.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Three  Oaks, 
Mich. 

Eddy,  William  Holden,  A.  B.  '92,  A.  M.  '93, 
Ph.  D.  '99,  Brown  U. ;  1st  Asst.  Supt. 
Sch.,  9  Exchange  Terrace,  Providence, 
R.    I.,   since    1918. 

Edgerton,  T.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Humboldt, 
Kans. 

Edmunds,  Henry  H.,  '95,  111.  State  Normal 
Univ.  Diploma;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  617  W. 
Main,    Clinton,   111.,    since    1907. 

Edwards,  H.  R.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  So.  Mil- 
waukee,   Wis. 

Egan,  Nora  L.,  Dist.  Prin.,  2672  W.  Grand 
Blvd.,    Detroit,    Mich.     - 

Egelhoff,  J.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  605  W.  Pine, 
Jerseyville,  111. 

Eikenberry,  W.  L.,  B.  S.  '94,  Univ.  of  Mich., 
Hd.  Science  Dept.,  Norm.  Sch.,  East 
Stroudsburg,    Pa.,    since    ig22. 

Eilenberger,  R.  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Butler, 
N.   J. 

Eisenhart,  W.  W.,  B.  S.  '17,  M.  A.  '21, 
Univ.  of  Pa.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Tyrone,  Pa., 
since    1921. 

Elcan,  E.  G.,  A.  B.  '08,  Hampden  Sidney 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bainbridge,  Ga.,  since 
ig2o. 

Eldred,   Arvie,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Troy,  N.  Y. 

Eldridge,  A.  C,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Rock- 
well   Bldg.,    Cleveland,    Ohio. 

Elliott,  A.  W.,  A.  B.  '05,  Ohio  Wesleyan 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  704  N.  Gay  St., 
Mt.  Vernon,  Ohio,  since  1921. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


385 


Elliott,  E.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  426  N.  10th 
St.,   Fredonia,    Kans. 

Ellis,  Henry  G.,  A.  B.  '10,  Randolph-Macon 
Col.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  Hall  Annex, 
Petersburg,   Va.,   since    1923. 

Ellis,   Melvina,    1029  5th  St.,   Lorain,  Ohio. 

Ellis,  Radford  Terrell,  B.  A.  '15,  Tex. 
Christian  U. ;  Ex.  Sec.  Tex.  State  Tchrs. 
Assn.,  304-305  N.  P.  Anderson  Bldg., 
Fort  Worth,   Tex.,   since    1916. 

Elmendorf,  George  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  121 
Court    St.,    Plattsburg,    N.    Y. 

Emmett,  H.  T.,  Ph.  B.  '13,  Wisconsin  Univ.; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Worland,  Wyo.,  since   1916. 

Emmons,  P.  C,  A.  B.  '00,  Ind.  U. ;  A.  M. 
'14,  Tchrs.  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Misha- 
waka,  Ind.,  since  1922. 

Endsley,  Andrew  D.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Taren- 
tum,   Pa. 

Engelhardt,  Fred,  Ph.  B.  '08,  Yale  U. ;  M. 
A.  '15,  Ph.  D.  '24,  T.  C.  Columbia  U. ; 
Prof.  Ed.  Admin.,  Univ.  of  Minn.,  Col. 
of   Ed.,    Minneapolis,    Minn.,    since    1924. 

Engelhardt,  N.  L.,  A.  B.  '03,  Yale  Univ.; 
Ph.  D.  '18,  Columbia  Univ.;  Prof,  of  Ed., 
Teachers  Col.,  Columbia  Univ.,  New 
York,    N.   Y.,   since   1918. 

Engleman,  F.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Nevada, 
Mo. 

Engleman,  James  O.,  '01,  Ind.  State  Normal 
Sch.  Diploma;  A.  B.  '05,  Ind.  Univ.;  A. 
M.  '18,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Supt.  of  Sch. 
Terre   Haute,   Ind.,  since   1924. 

Englund,  Walter  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Ely, 
Minn. 

Enright,  John,  State  Com.  of  Ed.,  State 
House,  Trenton,   N.  J. 

Erickson,  Anna  E.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Inter- 
national Falls,   Minn.,  since  1924. 

Erickson,  Arthur  G.,  A.  B.  'n,  A.  M.  '16, 
Univ.  of  Mich.;  M.  Ed.  '22,  Mich.  State 
Normal  Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Ypsilanti, 
Mich.,   since   1919. 

Erickson,  John  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  249  Col- 
lege   Ave.,    Houghton,    Mich. 

Ernst,  Lillie  R.,  Ph.  B.  '92,  A.  M.  '07, 
Wash.  Univ.;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  6058 
Kingsbury  Blvd.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  since 
1920. 

Ervin,  Walter  Evan,  Ph.  B.  '95,  DePauw  U.; 
A.  M.  '12,  T.  C.  Columbia  Univ.;  Prof. 
Sec.  Ed.,  Centre  Col.,  Box  232,  Danville, 
Ky.,   since    1919. 

Erwin.  Robert  L.,  A.  B.  '92,  A.  M.  '07, 
Yale  Univ.;  Sc.  D.  '18,  Ohio  Univ.;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Steubenville,    Ohio,    since    1907. 

Essery,  Florence  C,  A.  B.  '14,  M.  A.  '24, 
Univ.  of  Mich.;  Co.  Sch.  Com.,  Court 
House,   Ann   Arbor,    Mich.,   since    1924. 

Estill,  Harry  F.,  Litt.  D.  '07,  Austin  Col. 
Pres.  Sam  Houston  State  Teachers  Col., 
Huntsville,    Tex.,    since    1908. 

Ettinger,  William  L.,  B.  A.  '81,  M.  A.,  '91, 
Manhattan  Col.;  M.  D.  '91,  New  York 
Univ.;  LL.  D.  '18,  Manhattan  Col.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  500  Park  Ave.,  New  York,  N.  Y., 
since   1918. 


Evans,  Anna  L.,  Asso.  Dir.  Dept.  of  Rural 
Ed.,  Western  State  Normal  Sch.,  132 
Catherine    St.,    Kalamazoo,    Mich. 

Evans,  Edwin  B.,  Thiel  Col.,  Greenville,  Pa. 

Evans,  E.  O.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Evansville,  Wis. 

Evans,  Frank,  '83,  George  Peabody  Col.; 
LL.  D.  '20,  Univ.  of  S.  Car.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  163  North  Dean,  Spartanburg,  S.  C, 
since    1895. 

Evans,  L.  B.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  .Augusta, 
Ga. 

Evenden,  Edward  S.,  '03,  Oregon  Normal 
Sch.  Diploma.;  A.  B.  '10,  A.  M.  'ii,  Stan- 
ford Univ.;  Ph.  D.  '19,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Prof,  of  Ed.,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, 525  W.  1 20th  St.,  New  York, 
N.    Y.,   since   1923. 

Everest,  C.  A.,  A.  M.  '16,  U.  of  Mich.; 
Prin.  Union  H.  S.,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich., 
since    1921. 

Everett,  G.  E.,  B.  S.  '17,  A.  M.  '19,  George 
Peabody  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O.  Box  3, 
Lakeland,    Fla.,    since    1921. 

Everhart,    Frances   E.,   Alliance,   Ohio. 

Ewart,  Joseph  A.,  A.  B.  '93,  Boston  Univ. ; 
Ed.  M.  '21,  Harvard  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Milton,    Mass.,  -since    1920. 

Ewing,  E  .F.,  A.  M.  '13,  Colo.  Col.;  A.  B. 
'04,  Sterling  Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Kinsley, 
Kans.,    since    1922. 

Fairchild,  Milton,  B.  A.,  '90,  Oberlin  Col.; 
'93  Andover  Theo.  Sem. ;  Independ.  Stud. 
Character  Ed.  since  1896;  Chmn.  Character 
Ed.  Inst.,  3770  McKinley  St.  N.  W.,  Wash- 
ington,   D.    C.,    since    1922. 

Fairchild,  R.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Elgin,  111. 

Fairchild,  W.  W.,  A.  B.  '13,  Syracuse;  Supt. 
of    Sch.,     City     Hall,     Rutland,    Vt.,    since 

1921. 

Fales,  Lewis  A.,  A.  B.  '98,  Harvard;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Sanford  St.,  Attleboro,  Mass., 
since    1905. 

Falk,  H.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Sauk  Center, 
Minn. 

Fannon,  E.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Centerville, 
Iowa. 

Farmer,  Fred  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Storm  Lake, 
Iowa. 

Farrin,  Leon  M.,  A.  B.  '15,  Harvard  U. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  North  Hanover,  Mass., 
since    1924. 

Farris,   O.   R.,   Supt.  of  Sch.,  Osborne,   Kans. 

Farthing,  Birney  D.,  Ph.  B.  '20,  Ind.  State 
Normal  Sch.;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  232  E. 
2nd    St.,    Rushville,    Ind.,    since    1922. 

Fast,  L.  W.,  A.  B.  '20,  A.  M.  '24,  U.  of 
Mich.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Mt.  Clemens,  Mich., 
since    1919. 

Fausey,  John  R.,  A.  B.  '18,  Syracuse  U. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  169  Park  Ave.,  West  Spring- 
field,   Mass.,    since    1923. 

Fausold,  Chas.  D.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Perry, 
N.    Y. 

Fausold,  Samuel,  A.  B.  '10,  Gettysburg  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  High  Sch.  Bldg.,  740  Park 
Rd.,    Ambridge,    Pa.,    since    1922. 


386 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Faust,  Hugh  G.,  A.  B.  '06,  Carson-Newman 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Shawnee,  Okla.,  since 
1914. 

Fell,  E.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Holland,  Mich. 

Fellows,  Ernest  W.,  A.  B.  '94,  Grinnell  Col.; 
A.  M.  'ii,  Univ.  of  la.;  A.  M.  '17,  Tchrs. 
Col.,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  7 
Beacon   St.,   Gloucester,    Mass.,   since   192 1. 

Felmley,  David,  A.  B.  '81,  U.  of  Mich.; 
LL.  D.  '07,  U.  of  111.;  L.  H.  D.  '08,  Black- 
bum  Col. ;  Pres.  111.  St.  Norm.  Univ.,  207 
North  School  St.,  Normal,  111.,  since  1900. 

Fenner,  John  K.,  A.  B.  '98,  Brown  Univ.; 
Supt.  of.  Sch.,  147  Woodbine  St.,  Cran- 
ston, R.  I.,  since  1917. 

Fenton,  F.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bensenville, 
111. 

Fetterly,  Clarence  A.,  A.  B.  '97,  A.  M.  '00, 
Hamilton;  Supv.  Prin.,  Rutherford,  N.  J., 
since   191 1. 

Fewell,  J.  R.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Charleston, 
Miss. 

Fidler,  Wm.  L.,  Jr.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  185  Car- 
lyle   Rd.,    Audubon,    N.    J. 

Fillers,  Herbert  D.,  S.  B.  '16,  Univ.  of  Chi- 
cago; Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bo*  95,  Corsicana, 
Tex. 

Finegan,  Thomas  E.,  M.  A.  '94,  Hamilton 
Col.;  Pd.  D.  '09,  N.  Y.  State  Col.  for 
Tchrs.;  LL.  D.  '12,  Colgate  Univ.;  LL.  D. 
'17,  Hamilton  Col.;  LL.  D.  '18,  Univ.  of 
Maine;  LL.  D.  '21,  Temple  Univ.;  Litt. 
D.  '20,  Univ.  of  Pa.;  LL.  D.  '21,  Dart- 
mouth Col. ;  L.  H.  D.  '22,  Susquehanna 
Univ.;  American  Ed.  Service,  350  Madison 
Ave.,   New  York  City,  since   1924. 

Firman,  Sidney  G.,  B.  S.  '04,  Pd.  M.  '05, 
N.  Y.  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Glen  Ridge, 
N.  J.,  since  1910. 

Fisher,  C.  Edward,  A.  B.  '98,  St.  Lawrence; 
A.  M.  '12,  Brown;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  39  Oak 
St.,    Braintree,    Mass.,   since    1921. 

Fisher,  Charles  M.,  Supt.  Pub.  Instr.,  Court 
House,    Miami,    Fla. 

Fisher,  E.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Rock  Island,  111. 

Fisher,  Henry  B.,  A.  B.  '96,  N.  W.  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,   Streator,   111.,   since   19 14. 

Fishpaugh,  Clara  B.,  117  E.  Main  St.,  Buck- 
hannon,    W.    Va. 

Fitzgerald,  M.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  Hall, 
Cambridge,   Mass. 

Fitzgerald,  R.  G.,  A.  B.  '15,  Univ.  of  N.  C; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  18,  Greenville, 
N.  C. 

Fitzgibbon,  T.  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  47  Orchard 
Place,   Muncie,  Ind. 

Fitzsimmons,  L.  J.,  A.  B.  '16,  Kans.  Univ.; 
Prin.  H.   S.,  Eureka,   Kans.,  since   1920. 

Fletcher,  Milton  J.,  A.  B.  '88,  Syracuse  U.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.,  Jamestown,  N.  Y., 
since   1919. 

Flickinger,  C.  A.,  County  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Court   House,   Akron,    O. 

Flower,   O.   P.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,  Dubuque,   la. 


Foberg,  J.  A.,  B.  S.  '99,  U.  of  111.;  Dir. 
of  Math,  and  Sc,  State  Dept.  of  Pub. 
Inst.,    Harrisburg,    Pa.,    since    1921. 

Fogle,  Oscar  M.,  A.  B.  '02,  Roanoke,  Col. ; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Easton,  Md.,  since  1921. 

Foote,  John  M.,  M.  A.  '23,  George  Pea- 
body  Col.  for  Tchrs.;  State  Supr.  Elem. 
and  Rur.  Sch.,  Reymond  Bldg.,  Baton 
Rouge,  La.,  since  19 14. 

Ford,  Charles  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  225  4th  St., 
Edwardsville,    111. 

Ford,  George  M.,  A.  B.  '92,  LL.  B.  '96,  W. 
Va.  Univ.;  State  Supt.  Sch.,  Capitol  Bldg., 
Charleston,    W.    Va.,    since    1921. 

Foreman,  J.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Goshen,  Ind. 

Foster,  C.  R.,  B.  A.  '11,  M.  A.  '14,  Univ. 
of  Pittsburgh;  Assoc.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  729 
Fulton   Bldg.,   Pittsburgh,   Pa.,  since   1923. 

Foster,    Charles    Smalley,  A.    B.    '05,    A.    M. 

'06,    Antioch    Col.;    A.  M.    '11,    Uni.    of 

Mich.;   Asst.   Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,   Casstown, 
O.,   since   1923. 

Foster,  H.  W.,  A.  B.  '77,  Cornell  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  205  Garfield  Place,  South 
Orange,  N.  J.,  since  1900. 

Foust,  J.  L.,  Ph.  B.  '17,  Univ.  of  Chicago; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  1230  Locust  St.,  Owens- 
burg,    Ky.,    since    1921. 

Fowler,  Wade  C,  B.  S.  '21,  State  Tchrs. 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  113  Hawthorne  PI., 
Hiawatha,    Kans.,    since   1923. 

Fowlkes,  John  Guy,  Ph.  D.,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Assoc.  Prof,  of  Ed.,  108  Bascom  Hall, 
U.    W.,    Madison,    Wis.,    since    1924. 

Fox,  E.  E.,  B.  S.  '22,  George  Peabody  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Pontotoc,  Miss.,  since  1922. 

Fox,    George,    B.    S.    '23,    St.    Johns    Col.; 

Supt.    of   Sch.,    86    Market   St.,   Annapolis, 

Md.,   since    1916. 
Fox,  John  H.,  A.   B.   '17,   Dickinson;   Tchrs. 

Col.,    Box   136,   Morris  Plains,   N.   J. 

Frampton,  S.  A.,  B.  S.  '09,  O.  N.  U. ;  A. 
B.  '20,  Wittenberg;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S. 
Bldg.,    Bellefontaine,    O.,    since    1923. 

Francis,  George  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  7  Wash- 
ington   St.,    Manchester,    Mass. 

Francis,  May  E.,  Supt.  of  Pub.  Inst.,  State 
House,    Des   Moines,    Iowa. 

Franklin,  B.  D.,  A.  B.  '23,  Univ.  of  N.  C. ; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Newland,  N.  C,  since 
1923. 

Frazee,  Laura,  433  Kenneth  Square,  Balti- 
more,   Md. 

Frederick,  Oliver  G.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
1354    Broadway,    Detroit,    Mich. 

Freeman,  Frank  N.,  B.  A.,  '04,  Wesleyan 
Univ.;  M.  A.  '06,  Ph.  D.  '08,  Yale  Univ.; 
Prof,  in  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Chicago, 
Chicago,    111.,    since    1909. 

French,  J.  W.,  A.  B.  '12,  B.  S.  '14,  Univ. 
of  Kans.;  A.  M.  '22,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Colum- 
bia Univ.;  Sup;,  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg., 
Winfield,    Kans.,    since    1922. 

French,  Lloyd  C,  A.  B.  '10,  Ripon  Col.; 
Supv.  Prin.,  1299  Pa.  Ave.,  Monaca,  Pa., 
since   1921. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


387 


French,  W.  C,  A.  B.  '07,  Univ.  of  Okla.; 
M.  A.  '24,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Drumright,    Okla.,    since    19 16. 

Friend,  Lloyd  L.,  State  Dept.  of  Ed., 
Charleston,   W.    Va. 

Frits,  F.  N.,  A.  M.  '16,  Columbia;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Clairton,   Pa.,   since    1922. 

Frizzell,  Bonner,  A.  B.  '09,  Tex.  Christian 
Univ.;  B.  S.  'n,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  P.  O.  Drawer  579,  Palestine, 
Tex.,  since  1919. 

Frohardt,  L.  P.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2223  D  St., 
Granite    City,    111. 

Frostic,  F.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  129  Oak  St., 
Wyandotte,    Mich. 

Fuda,  Anna  M.,  State  Suprvg.  Agt.,  65 
Park    PI.,    Meriden,    Conn.,    since    1921. 

Fuehrer,  William  L.,  B.  E.  '10,  Schuylkill; 
LL.  B.  '16,  Hamilton;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  417 
Elm  St.,   Boyne   City,   Mich.,  since   1922. 

Fulinder,  L.  A.,  Prin.  H.  S.,  634  Lincoln 
Blvd.,   Freeport,   111. 

Fuller,    Edward    H.,    A.    B.    '12,    A.    M.    '16, 

Bates   Col.;    Supt.   of  Sch.,   Darien,   Conn., 

since   1923. 
Fullerton,    Charles   Hayward,    B.    Ph.   '98,   M. 

A.    '11,    Ohio    State   Univ.;    Asst.    Supt.    of 

Sch.,    88    18th    Ave.,    Columbus,    O.,    since 

1916. 
Fuqua,    F.    Y.,    LL.    D.    '09,    Peabody;     Co. 

Supt.    of    Sch.,    Box    36,    Dresden,    Tenn., 

since  1915. 

Furry,  W.  D.,  A.  B.  '00,  M.  A.  '04,  Notre 
Dame  Univ.;  Ph.D.  '07,  Johns  Hopkins 
Univ. ;  Dean  and  Prof,  of  Phil,  and  Ed., 
Shorter   Col.,   Rome,  Ga.,   since   1919. 

Furth,  F.  Willard,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  400  Fel- 
ton  Ave.,   Highland  Park,   N.  J. 

Gage,  Snyder,  J.,  A.  B.  '99,  Union  Col.; 
Pd.  B.  '01,  Albany  Normal  Col.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  98  Grand  St.,  Newburgh,  N.  Y., 
since    1921. 

Gallagher,  Oscar  C,  A.  B.  '96,  A.  M.  '06, 
Harvard;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Town  Hall,  Brook- 
line,    Mass.,    since    1919. 

Galloway,  T.  W.,  Am.  Social  Hygiene  Assn., 
370    Seventh   Ave.,    New   York,    N.    Y. 

Gallup,  Jackson,  Prin.  Sch.  No.  18,  Roches- 
ter,  N.  Y. 

Gamble,  C.  B.',  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Demopolis, 
Ala. 

Gamble,  William  D.,  A.  B.  '96,  A.  M.  '01, 
Westminster;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  198  Cedar 
Ave.,    Sharon,   Pa.,   since   1913. 

Gamertsfelder,  C.  C,  A.  B.  '09,  Northwest- 
ern Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Decorah,  Iowa, 
since   1921. 

Gamertsfelder,  P.  G.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Elka- 
der,   Iowa. 

Ganders,  Harry  S.,  B.  Ed.  '20,  A.  M.  '22, 
Univ.  of  Wash.;  Prof,  of  Ed.  Admin., 
State  Tchrs.  Col.,  4  Lafayette  Apts.,  Gree- 
ley, Colo.,  since  1924. 

Gannon,  John  F.,  B.  A.  'g6,  M.  A.  '02, 
LL.  D.  '23,  Holy  Cross,  Col.;  B.  L.  '12, 
Northeastern  Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Room 
10,   City  Hall,  Pittsfield,   Mass.,  since  1920. 

Garber,  T.  E.,  A.  B.;  M.  Pd. ;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,   202  Lincoln  Ave.,   Bellevue,  Pa. 


Garcelon,  A.  B.,  Ph.  B.  '02,  J.  D.  '04,  Univ. 
of  Chicago;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Room  106  H.  S. 
Bldg.,    Bangor,    Maine,    since    1922. 

Garrett,  R.  E.,  Ph.  B.  '23,  Univ.  of  Chicago; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  711  S.  State  St.,  Belvidere, 
111.,    since    1923. 

Garrison,  Levi  T.,  Regional  Supervisor  State 
Bd.  of  Ed.,  Normal  Sch.,  Willimantic, 
Conn.,   since    19 10. 

Garth,  Thomas  R.,  A.  B.  'og,  M.  A.  *io, 
Univ.  of  Denver;  Ph.  D.  '17,  Columbia 
Univ. ;  Prof,  of  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Denver,  Den- 
ver,   Colo.,    since    1922. 

Garver,  V.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Doylestown, 
Ohio. 

Garwood,  C.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  3114  Green 
St.,   Harrisburg,   Pa. 

Gaskins,  Avery  E.,  A.  B.  '17,  Lebanon  Univ.; 
A.  B.  '23,  Salem  Col. ;  Supt.  of  Falling 
Springs.   Sch.,  Renick,  W.   Va.,  since   1922. 

Gates,  C.  Ray,  B.  E.  'n,  Penn  State  Nor- 
mal Sch.;  B.  A.  '16,  Univ.  of  Neb.;  M.  A., 
20,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  107V2 
W.   4th,   Grand   Island,    Nebr.,   since   1922. 

Gaufin,    C.    E.,   Supt.  of   Sch.,   218   Vine   St 
Murray,   Utah. 

Gaultney,  B.  H.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Pulaski, 
Tenn. 

Gay,  J.  C,  M.  A.  '90,  Meridian  Bus.  Col.; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  3,  Hattiesburg, 
Miss.,  since  1918. 

Gayler,  G.  W.,  Diploma  '93,  Ind.  State  Nor- 
mal Sch.;  A.  B.  '97,  Ind.  Univ.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  320  Sherman  Ave.,  Macomb,  111., 
since    1910. 

Geary,  Grace,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Blaine  Bldg., 
Superior,   Wis. 

Gee,  Louis,  Clyde,  M.  A.  '88,  Burritt  Col., 
Tenn.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  3531  Lee  St.,  Green- 
ville,   Tex.,    since    1907. 

Geer,  Florence,  Bellevue  School,  Detroit, 
Mich. 

Gehres,    L.    F.,    Box    1001,    Columbus,    Ohio. 

Geiger,  Franklin  Paul,  B.  C.  S.  '94,  A.  B 
'94,  A.  M.  '12,  Mt.  Union  Col.;  D.  Pd. 
'18,  Ohio  Univ.;  Supt  of  Sch.,  692  Lin- 
coln Ave.,  East  Liverpool,  Ohio,  since 
1917. 

Geiger,  J.  D.,  A.  B.  '22,  Bluffton  Col.; 
Prin.  Mt.  Vernon,  O.  H.  S.,  307  N.  Main 
St.,    Mt.   Vernon,    Ohio,    since    1924. 

Geiger,  Wm.  F.,  A.  B.  '92,  A.  M.  '22,  Dart- 
mouth Col.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  608  No.  J.  St., 
Tacoma,    Wash.,    since    1912. 

Geiger,  William  Herman,  Ph.  B.  '10,  Mt. 
Union  Col.;  M.  A.  '12,  Univ.  of  Chicago; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Lisbon,   Ohio,   since   1917. 

Geiss,  Newton  W.,  A.  B.  '15,  Muhlenberg 
Col.;  A.  M.  '23,  U.  of  Pa.;  Sch.  Supt.  of 
Oley,  Pa.,  since  1915. 

Gentry,  Charles  B.,  A.  B.  'n,  Warrensburg 
Norm.  Sch.;  S.  B.  '12,  Univ.  of  Chicago; 
M.  S.  '19,  Cornell  Univ.;  Dean,  Div. 
Tchr.  Tr.  Conn.  Agr.  Col.,  and  State 
Super.  Agr.  Ed.,  State  Bd.  of  Ed.,  Storrs, 
Conn.,  since  1920. 


388 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Gentry,  S.  W.(  B.  S.  '18  M.  A.  '20,  Pea- 
body  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Kingsport,  Tenn., 
since    192 1. 

Gerberich,  G.  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Greenville, 
Pa. 

Gerberich,  J.  A.,  Ph.  B.  '06,  Col.  of  Wooster; 
Ph.  M.  '22,  Univ.  of  Wis.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
18  Linwood  Ave.,  Danville,  O.,  since  1916. 

Germane,  Charles  E.,  Ph.  D.  '20,  Iowa  State 
Univ. ;  Dean,  Col.  of  Ed.,  Des  Moines 
Univ.,    Des    Moines,    Iowa,    since    1920. 

Gerson,  Armand  J.,  M.  A.  '09,  Ph.  D.  '10, 
Univ.  of  Pa.;  Assoc.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Key- 
stone Bldg.,  19th  at  Chestnut  St.,  Phila- 
delphia,   Pa.,    since    1920. 

Gibbons,  Thomas  F.,  A.  B.  '99,  Holy  Cross 
Col.;  LL.  B.  '02,  Boston  U. ;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,   H.    S.,    Clinton,    Mass.,   since   1915. 

Gibson,  Carleton  B.,  A.  M.  '85,  LL.  D.  '13, 
Univ.  of  Ala.;  D.  Ped.  '23,  Oglethorpe 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  204  Bull  St.,  Sa- 
vannah,   Ga.,    since    1916, 

Gibson,  John  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  701  N.  Mc- 
Kean    St.,    Butler,    Pa. 

Gibson,  Joseph  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  McComb, 
Miss. 

Gibson,  J.   V.,  Supt.   of  Sch.,   Leslie,   Mich. 

Gift,  E.  B.,  A.  B.  '07,  A.  M.  '15,  Kans. 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Manhattan,  Kans., 
since   1915. 

Gilbert,  Frank  B.,  A.  B.  '89,  LL.  D.  '20, 
Hamilton  Col.;  Dep.  Com.  of  Ed.,  State 
of  New  York,  State  Ed.  Bldg.,  Albany, 
N.   Y.,   since   1919. 

Gilbert,  Julius,  Diploma  '06,  Penn  State 
Teachers  Col. ;  Prin.  Beatrice  High  School, 
614  No.   Fifth,  Beatrice,   Nebr.,  since  1918. 

Gilbert,  O.  G.,  Prin.  Dover  St.  School,  517 
Dakota    St.,    Milwaukee,    Wis. 

Giles,  J.  T.,  A.  B.  '94,  A.  M.  '02,  Ind.  Univ.; 
State  High  Sch.  Supr.,  326  W.  Wash. 
St.,    Madison,   Wis.,   since    1920. 

Gilkey,  J.  W.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Prosser, 
Wash. 

Gilland,  Edwin  C,  A.  B.  '07,  Lafayette; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Red  Bank,  N.  }.,  since  1920. 

Gilland,  Thomas  M.,  A.  B.  '09,  Ursinus 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Donora,  Pa.,  since 
1918. 

Gilman,  John  S.,  A.  B.  '02,  Dartmouth; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  26  Academy  St.,  Laconia, 
N.    H.,  since   1917. 

Gilmore,  W.  Lee,  M.  E.  '04,  State  Normal 
Sch.,  Slippery  Rock,  Pa.;  A.  B.  '05,  Cen- 
tral Univ.;  B.  S.  '18,  Univ.  of  Pittsburgh; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  618  Penna.  Ave.,  Oakmont, 
Pa.,   since    1916. 

Girard,  G.  R.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  35  Rossmore 
PI.,    Belleville,    N.   J. 

Githens,  C.  E.,  Ph.  B.  '96,  Ph.  M.  '99,  Ph. 
D.  '06,  Franklin;  A.  M.  '02,  Bethany; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  since 
1914. 

Givens,  W.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Dept.  of  Pub. 
Inst.,   P.   O.    Box   2360,    Honolulu,    Hawaii. 

Glasgow,  J.  P.,  M.  A.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Mar- 
shall,   Tex.,    since    19 16. 


Glass,'  Edward  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lynch- 
burg,   Va.,    since    1879. 

Glenn,  C.  B.,  B.  S.  '91,  M.  S.  '92,  Ala.  Poly. 
Inst.;  A.  B.  '96,  Harvard  Univ.;  LL.  D. 
'18,  Univ.  of  Ala.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2030 
Park   Ave.,    Birmingham,   Ala.,    since    1921. 

Glenn,.  Earl  R.,  425  W.  123d  St.,  New  York, 
N."  Y. 

Goodier,  Floyd  T.,  A.  B.  '03,  Colgate,  Univ.; 
A.  M.  '09,  Teachers  Col.,  Columbia  Univ. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Chicago  Hgts.,  111.,  since 
1918. 

Goodrich,  L.  P.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Fond  Du 
Lac,    Wis. 

Goodrich,  Merton  T.,  B.  S.  '09,  Univ.  of 
Maine;  M.  A.  '12,  Clark  Univ.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Kennebunk,   Maine,   since   1919. 

Goodykoontz,  Bess,  B.  A.  '20,  M.  A.  '22, 
Univ.  of  Iowa;  Supt.  Elem.  Sch.,  Green 
Bay,   Wis.,    since    1922. 

Goold,  H.  R.,  B.  S.  '08,  N.  W.  U. ;  M.  A. 
'22,  U.  of  Wash.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Renton, 
Wash,  since    1922. 

Gore,  W.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Webster  Grove, 
Mo. 

Gorman,  Anna  G.,  B.  S.  '19,  T.  C.  Colum- 
bia Univ. ;  Asst.  Agt.  for  Tchr.  Tr.,  Mass. 
St.  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Div.  Voc.  Ed.,  State 
House,    Boston,    Mass.,    since    1923. 

Goslin,  Willard  E.,  B.  S.  '22,  State  Tchr. 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  116,  Slater,  Mo., 
since    1923 

Gosling,  Thomas  W.,  B.  A.  '94,  M.  A.  '04, 
Yale  Univ.;  Ph.D.  '11,  Univ.  of  Cincin- 
nati; Supt.  of  Sch.,  22  W.  Dayton  St., 
Madison,    Wis.,    since    1921    .. 

Goudy,  William  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Durand, 
Mich. 

Gould,  Arthur  L.,  A.  B.  '12,  A.  M.  '13,  Bos- 
ton Col.;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  15  Beacon 
St.,     Boston,    Mass.,    since    1920. 

Gourley,  David,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  American 
Fork,    Utah. 

Gowans,  J.  W.,  A.  B.  '03,  Univ.  of  Kans.; 
A.  M.  '18,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
202  E.  14th  St.,  Hutchinson,  Kans.,  since 
1922. 

Graber,  O.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  320  Grand, 
Las    Animas,    Colo. 

Graff,  E.  U.,  A.  B.  '97,  A.  M.  '15,  Lake 
Forest  Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  150  N.  Merid- 
ian   St.,    Indianapolis,    Ind.,   since    1917. 

Graham,  John  G.,  A.  B.  '09,  A.  M.  '14, 
Wooster  Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Library 
Bldg.,    Huntington,    W.   Va.,   since    1922. 

Graham,  William  A.,  A.  B.  '03,  Univ.  of 
N.  C,  A.  M.  '20,  Columbia  Univ.;  Co. 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court  House,  Wilmington, 
N.    C,   since   1920. 

Graves,  Frank  P.,  Ph.  D.,  Litt.  D.,  L.  H.  D., 
LL.  D. ;  Pres.  of  the  Univ.  and  Com.  of 
Ed.,  The  Univ.  of  the  State  of  N.  Y., 
Albany,    N.    Y. 

Graves,  S.  Monroe,  A.  B.  '02,  Colgate  Univ.; 
A.  M.  '12,  Ph.  D.  '13,  Harvard  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  31  Elm, St.,  Wellesley  Hills, 
Mass.,    since    1914. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


389 


Gray,  Olive,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  17  8th 
Ave.,    E.,    Hutchinson,    Kans. 

Gray,  R.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Statesville,  N.  C, 
since   igzi. 

Gray,  Wil  Lou,  Supv.  of  Adult  Sch.,  Co- 
lumbia,   S.    C. 

Gray,  William  S.,  Ph.  D.  '16,  Univ.  of  Chi- 
cago; M.  A.  '14,  Columbia  Univ.;  S.  B. 
'13,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Dean  Col.  of  Ed.; 
Prof,  of  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Chicago,  Chicago, 
111.,   since    1916. 

Grayum,  William  H.,  A.  B.  '13,  State  Norm. 
Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  327,  Puyallup, 
Wash.,   since   ig22. 

Greathead,  Elsie  Selene,  B.'  S.  '14,  M.  A. 
'21,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia;  Prin.  Blvd. 
Sch.,  Shaker  Heights,  10115  Wilbur  Ave., 
Cleveland,    Ohio,    since    1922. 

Green,  Clarence,  A.  B.  '03,  Univ.  of  111. ; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  407  N.  Van  Buren  St., 
Auburn,    Ind.,    since    1921. 

Green,  George  Norman,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Su- 
perior,  Wyo. 

Greenawalt,  William  C,  A.  B.  '07,  A.  M. 
'12,  Franklin  &  Marshall  Col.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Box   484,    Olean,    N.    Y.,    since   1920. 

Greenman,  A.  T.,  A.  B.  '17,  Univ.  of  Mich.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  242  N.  Elizabeth,  Marine 
City,    Mich.,    since    1923. 

Greer,  John  N.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Minne- 
apolis,   Minn. 

Greer,  Wilson,  B.  A.  '17,  Wes.  Conn.;  State 
Supvg.  Agt.,  Box  101,  Willimantic,  Conn., 
since   1920. 

Greeson,  William  A.,  A.  B.  '79,  A.  M.  '79, 
Univ.  of  Mich.;  Jr.  College;  Stratford 
Arms,    Grand   Rapids,    Mich.,   since   1924. 

Greist,  O.  H.,  Co.  Supt  of  Sch.,  Court 
House,    Winchester,    Ind. 

Gress,  Harry  E.,  B.  S.  '09,  A.  M.  '17,  Buck- 
nell  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  936  Va.  Ave., 
Lancaster,     Pa.,     since     1924. 

Grier,  B.  M.,  A.  B.  '16,  Erskine  Col.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  High  School,  Elberton,  Ga.,  since 
1920. 

Griffey,  Carl  H.,  A.  B.  'io,  Indiana  Univ.; 
A.  M.  '16,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Adrian,    Mich.,    since    1915. 

Griffin,  Isaac  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Shelby, 
N.    C.,   since    1916. 

Griffith,  Preston  Heath,  B.  S.  '03,  La.  State 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1916  America  St., 
Baton    Rouge,    La.,    since    19 17. 

Griggs,   W.    C,    Supt.   of   Sch.,    Danville,   Va. 

Grill,  G.  W.,  A.  B.  '11,  Dakota  Wes.;  Bd. 
of  Ed.,  1456  Warren  Road,  Lakewood, 
Ohio. 

Grimes,  B.  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  67  Broadway, 
Hagerstown,    Md. 

Grimm,  S.  R.,  A.  B.  '11,  Wash.  &  Jeff.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  425  Vermont  Ave.,  Roches- 
ter,  Pa.,   since    1918. 

Groethe,  Amos,  A.  B.  '05,  St.  Olaf;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Rapid    City,    S.    Dak.,    since   ig20. 


Grose,  Walter  R.,  A.  B.,  W.  Va.  Wesleyan 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Buckhannon,  W.  Va., 
since    191 2. 

Grout,  D.  A.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1625  E.  Main 
St.,    Portland,    Oreg. 

Grover,  Elbridge,  C,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
3379  Berkeley  Ave.,  Cleveland  Heights, 
Ohio. 

Groves,  Charles,  D.,  B.  Ped.  '08,  Scio  Col.; 
A.  B.  '21,  Mt.  Union  Col.;  Co.  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  E.  Ashtabula  St.,  Jefferson,  Ohio, 
since    1920. 

Gruver,  Harvey  S.,  A.  B.  '02,  Otterbein; 
A.  M.  '10,  Harvard;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lynn, 
Mass. 

Gruver,  John  W.,  A.  B.  '98,  A.  M.  '01, 
Lafayette  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  133  S. 
Third    St.,    Bangor,    Pa.,    since    1903. 

Gugle,  Marie,  A.  B.  '97,  Ohio  State  Univ., 
A.  M.  '13,  Columbia,  Univ.;  Asst.  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Woodcliff  Lodge,  R.  F.  D.  5, 
Columbus,    Ohio,    since    1914. 

Gunnison,  Viola  M.,  Supt.  •  of  Co.  Sch., 
Black    River    Falls,    Wis. 

Gushee,  Walter  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  3  Winsor 
St.,    Ludlow,    Mass.,    since    1903. 

Guysi,  Alice  V.,  Supv.  of  Art,  209  Long- 
fellow   Ave.,    Detroit,    Mich. 

Gwinn,    J.    M.,    A.    B.    '02,    Univ.    of  Mo.; 

A.    M.    '07,   T.    C.    Columbia    Univ.;  Supt. 

of  Sch.,   Bd.   of   Ed.,    City   Hall,   San  Fran- 
cisco,   Calif.,    since    1923. 

Gwynn,  P.  H,  Jr.,  A.  B.  '12,  A.  M.  '13, 
Univ.  of  N.  C. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Reidsville, 
N.    C,   since   1919. 

Haefner,   R.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Appleton,    Minn. 

Hagan,  J.  J.,  A.  B.,  Ind.  Univ.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Beardstown,    111.,    since    1922. 

Haisley,  Otto  W.,  M.  A.  '17,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Supt.    of    Sch.,    Ann    Arbor,    Mich. 

Hale,  Arthur  W.,  A.  B.  '06,  Amherst;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  143  Emmons,  Franklin,  Mass., 
since    1918. 

Hale,  Florence  M.,  Agt.  for  Rural  Ed., 
State    Dept.   of   Ed.,   Augusta,    Maine. 

Haley,  Harvey  H.,  B.  S.  '18,  Peabody  Col.; 
M.  A.  '23,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
1 1 15  Walnut  St.,  Blytheville,  Ark.,  since 
1916. 

Haley,  Nelle,  B.  S.  '21,  T.  C,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Supvr.  of  Instr.,  1008  Court  St., 
Saginaw,   W.    S.,    Mich.,   since    1921. 

Hall,  C.  S.,  B.  S.  '10,  Hiram  Col.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Belle    Fourche,    S.    D.,    since    1917. 

Hall,  Elizabeth,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  City 
Hall,     Minneapolis,     Minn. 

Hall,  George  F.,  B.  E.  '06  Union  Col.; 
M.  A.  '23,  Columbia  Univ. ;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  Cliffside  Pk.  H.  S.,  Grantwood, 
N.    J.,    since    ig2i. 

Hall,  J.  O.,  A.  B.  'g8,  Univ.  of  Kans.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  no  E.  12th  St.,  Pawhuska, 
Okla.,   since    ig22. 

Hall,  John  W.,  B.  S.  '01,  M.  A.  '02,  T.  C. 
Columbia  Univ. ;  Dean  of  Sch.  of  Ed., 
Univ.  of  Nevada,  Reno,  Nevada,  since 
ig20. 


390 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Hall,  Madison,  Diploma  '12,  San  Marcos 
Normal;  B.  S.  '17,  M.  A.  '21,  Peabody 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  721,  Bryan,  Tex., 
since   ig2i. 

Hall,  R.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Little  Rock,  Ark. 

Hall,    W.    F.,    Supt.    of    Sch.,    Camden,    Ark. 

Hall,  Wells  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Concord, 
Mass. 

Halsted,  Lloyd  D.,  A.  B.  '12,  Univ.  of 
Nebr. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Tecumseh,  Nebr., 
since   1923. 

Hamilton,  J.  N.,  A.  B.  '10,  Southwestern 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  1144,  Ponca  City, 
Okla.,   since   1916. 

Hamilton,  Katharine,  B.  S.  '95,  Eureka; 
M.  A.  '13,  Columbia  Univ.;  Asst.  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  401  Court  House,  St.  Paul,  Minn., 
since   1917. 

Hamilton,  Mae,  County  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Cas- 
per, Wyo. 

Hamilton,  O.  A.,  A.  B.  '10,  Univ.  of  N.  C. ; 
M.  A.  '22,  Columbia  Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Goldsboro,    N.    C,    since    1918. 

Hamilton,  Otto  T.,  A.  B.  '11,  LL.  B.  'n, 
Ind.  Univ.;  A.  M.  '18,  Teachers  Col.,  Co- 
lumbia Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  802  S.  Hen- 
ley  Ave.,    Fairmount,    Ind.,    since    1919. 

Hamilton,  Robin  Lynn,  A.  B.  '05,  Mich.; 
Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Sioux  City,  Iowa, 
since    1921. 

Hamilton,  W.  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Oak  Park, 
111. 

Hamlin,  Benjamin  P.,  B.  A.  '07,  Ph.  B.  '08, 
Yale  Univ.  ;  Dist.  Supt.  Sch.,  Manches- 
ter,   Vt.,   since    1919. 

Hammon,  M.  P.,  Pres.  Tchrs.  Col.;  Tahle- 
quah,    Okla. 

Hampton,  A.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  908  Main 
Ave.,    La    Grande,    Oregon. 

Hand,  Wm.  H.,  1325  Washington  St.,  Co- 
lumbia,   S.    C. 

Handy,  Anson  B.,  A.  B.  '08,  Harvard  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Thompsonville,  Conn.,  since 
1922. 

Hanifan,  L.  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O.  Box 
181,   Paducah,   Ky. 

Hanna,  George  W.,  M.  Di.  '99,  Highland 
Park  Col.;  A.  B.  '18,  Des  Moines  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  620  Normal  Ave.,  Valley 
City,    N.    D.,    since    1899. 

Harding,  W.   C,  A.   B.  '12,   Coe   Col.;    M.  A.\ 
'24,    Iowa   Univ.;    Supt.    of   Sch.,   Washing- 
ton,  Iowa,  since   ig20. 

Hardy,  John  C,  A.  M.  '90,  LL.  D.,  '02, 
Miss.  Col.;  LL.  B.  '97,  Millsaps  Col.; 
Pres.  Baylor  Col.  for  Women,  Belton, 
Tex.,  since  1912. 

Karman,  A.  F.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  776, 
Montgomery,  Ala. 

Harmon,  T.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  315  Third 
Ave.    N.    W.,    Watertown,    S.    D. 

Harper,  James  Robb,  A.  B.  '00,  Cedarville 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wilmette,  111.,  since 
1908. 

Harper,  Thomas  B.,  Supt.,  500  Sixth  Ave., 
Belmar,    N.    J. 


Harper,  William  J.,  B.  E.  '22,  Brown  Univ.; 
'10,  St.  Laurent  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  5 
Lookout   Ave.,    North   Providence,    R.    I. 

Harrington,  Don.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Albion, 
Mich. 

Harrington,  E.  Nettie,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  On- 
tonagon,   Mich. 

Harrington,  F.  E.,  State  Bd.  of  Ed.,  State 
Capitol,    Hartford,    Conn. 

Harris,  Alice  Louise,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  46 
Elm    St.,    Worcester,    Mass. 

Harris,  Edwin  M.,  A.  B.  '05,  Wheaton  Col. ; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court  House,  Geneva, 
111. 

Harris,  F.  R.,  A.  B.  '02,  Ohio  Wes.  Univ.; 
M.  A.  *io,  Harvard  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Harper    Hotel,    Greenfield,    O.,    since    1923. 

'Harris,  Glenn  W.,  Supr.  Prin.,  Whittier 
Sch.,    Dunellen,    N.    J.,    since    1923. 

Harris,  James  H.,  A.  B.  '91,  Univ.  of  Mich.; 
Supt.    of   Sch.,   Pontiac,    Mich.,   since    1921. 

Harris,  William,  A.  B.  '14,  A.  M.  '23,  Univ. 
of  111.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  309  W.  Wash. 
Blvd.,    Urbana,   111.,   since   192 1. 

Harris,  W.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Ferndale,  Mich. 

Harrison,  W.  R.,  B.  S.  '99,  Univ.  of  Ala.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  400  So.  McDonough  St., 
Montgomery,    Ala.,    since    1917. 

Hart,  Harris,  State  Supt.  of  Pub.  Instr., 
Richmond,    Va. 

Hartley,  B.  W.,  A.  B.  '12,  Chicago  Univ.; 
M.  A.  '15,  Columbia  U. ;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Administration  Bldg.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  since 
1923. 

Hartman,  R.  M.,  Supv.  Prin.  of  Sch.,  At- 
lantic   Highlands,    N.    J. 

Hartsfield,  F.  S.,  A.  B.  '09,  Univ.  of  Chat- 
tanooga; Supt.  Pub.  Inst.,  Court  House, 
Tallahassee,    Fla.,    since    1917. 

Hartwell,  Ernest  C,  A.  B.  '05,  Albion  Col.; 
A.  M.  '10,  Univ.  of  Mich.;  M.  Ped.  '12, 
Mich.  State  Norm.  Col.;  D.  Ped.,  N.  Y. 
State  Col.  for  Tchrs.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1400 
N.  Y.  Tel.  Bldg.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  since 
1918. 

Hartwell,  Shattuck  O.,  B.  A.  '88,  Amherst 
Col.;  M.  Pd.  '11,  Mich.  State  Tchrs. 
Col.;  LL.  D.  '15,  Kalamazoo  Col.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  401  Court  House,  St.  Paul,  Minn., 
since    1918. 

Haskell,  Charles  O.,  B.  A.  '13,  Defiance  Col.; 
M.  A.  '20,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Harvard,    111.,   since    1918. 

Hatcher  W.  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Baton 
Rouge,    La. 

Haviland,  L.   W.,   Supt.  of  Sch.,   Onarga,  111. 

Hawke,  Oscar  T.,  A.  B.  '14,  A.  M.  '17,  Wit- 
tenberg Col. ;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  County 
Bldg.,    Springfield,    Ohio,    since    1922. 

Hawkins,  Wilson,  Ph.  B.  'n,  Mt.  Union- 
Scio ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Canton,  Ohio,  since 
1918. 

Hawthorne,  L.  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Mexico, 
Mo. 

Hayden,  Stanley,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Kahoka,  Mo. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


391 


Hayes,  C.  K.,  B.  D.  '09,  la.  State  Tchrs. 
Col.;  B.  A.  '13,  la.  Wes.  Col.;  M.  A. 
'23,  State  Univ.  of  la.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
105  E.  5th  St.,  Muscatine,  la.,  since  1923. 

Haynes,  F.  B.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Union 
Springs,   Ala. 

Hazel,  Floyd  M.,  Supt.  Lakeview  Con.  H.  S., 
Battle   Creek,   Mich. 

Heckert,  Eli  P..  A.  B.  '02,  A.  M.  '04,  Buck- 
nell  Univ.;  Supr.  Prin.  of  Sch.,  Mauch 
Chunk,    Pa.,    since    1915- 

Hedges,  C.  F.,  Ph.  B.  '12,  Univ.  of  Wis.; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Neenah,   Wis.,   since   1917. 

Heer,  Amos  L.,  A.  B.  '14,  B.  Pd.  '14,  Tri 
State  Col.;  A.  M.  '21,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Co- 
lumbia; 65  E.  Patterson  Ave.,  Columbus, 
Ohio. 

Heffelfinger,  John  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  720  E. 
7th,  Newton,  Kans. 

Hefley,  John  T.,  A.  B.  'ox,  Univ.  of  Okla. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  301  Cummings  St.,  Henry- 
etta,   Okla.,  since    1913- 

Heidelberg,  H.  B.,  B.  A.  '03,  Millsaps  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Clarksdale, 
Miss.,    since    1905- 

Heightshoe,  Agnes  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Perry, 
Iowa. 

Heinig,  W.  T.,  443  Walnut  Rd.,  Ben  Avon, 
Pa. 

Heinmiller,  L.  E.,  Prof,  of  Ed.,  State  Nor- 
mal,  Slippery  Rock,   Pa. 

Heise,   Bryan,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Morenci,   Mich. 

Helfrich,  A.  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Northville, 
Mich. 

Heller,  Daniel  B.,  A.  B.  '13,  Iowa  Wesleyan; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  154,  Vermilion,  S.  D., 
since   ig22. 

Heller,  Regenia  R.,  Supv.  of  Reading  Knd- 
grtns.,  100  E.  Grand  River  Ave.,  Detroit, 
Mich. 

Helm,  Morton  C,  A.  B.  '17,  A.  M.  '18, 
State  Univ.  of  S.  Dak.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Bd.  of  Ed.  Bldg.,  Fairport  Harbor,  Ohio, 
since  1920. 

Helms,  Walter  T.,  Ph.  B.  '99,  U.  of  Calif.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lincoln  Sch.,  Richmond, 
Calif.,   since   1909. 

Helter,  Henry  Harrison,  A.  B.  'gi,  Ohio 
Wesleyan  Univ.;  A.  M.  '12,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  355  W.  Fourth  St., 
Mansfield,  Ohio,  since   1907. 

Hemmer,  H.  W.  A.,  B.  S.  '97,  Nat.  Norm. 
Univ.;  A.  B.  '24,  Ind.  State  Norm.  Sch.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  201  Third,  Huntingburg, 
Ind.,   since   1921. 

Hemstreet,  A.  Earle,  Ph.  B.  '11,  Pd.  B.  '11, 
Syracuse;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg., 
Corry,    Pa.,    since    1920. 

Henderson,  D.  T.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Little 
Rock,  Ark. 

Henderson,  Lester  D.,  A.  B.  '11,  Tarkio  Col.; 
Com.  of   Ed.,   Juneau,  Alaska,   since   1917. 

Henderson,  T.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Brevard, 
N.    C,   since    1905. 


Henderson,  T.  Edgar,  B.  S.  '23,  Univ.  of 
Minn. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Columbia  Heights, 
4100  Central  Ave.,  Columbia  Heights, 
Minneapolis,   Minn.,   since  1923. 

Hendricks,  Eldo  L.,  B.  S.  '94,  LL.  D.  '16, 
Franklin  Col. ;  A.  M.  '99,  Ind.  Univ. ; 
Pres.  State  Tchrs.  Col.,  217  E.  Gay.,  War- 
rensburg,    Mo.,   since    1915. 

Hendrix,  H.  E.,  A.  B.  '01,  Ph.  B.  'oi,  N. 
W.  Col.;  LL.  B.  '08,  Erie  Col.  of  Law; 
A.  M.  '23,  Stanford  Univ.;  A.  M.  '03, 
N.  W.  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Mesa,  Arizona, 
since  1920. 

Hendry,  Frank,  A.  B.  '09,  A.  M.  '14,  Univ. 
of  Mich.:  Supt.  of  Sch.,  153  Hendrie 
Blvd.,   Royal   Oak,    Mich.,   since    1915. 

Henely,  Eugene,  B.  S.  '90,  Ames;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,   H.    S.,    Grinnell,    Iowa,  since    1905. 

Henmon,  V.  A.  C,  A.  B.  '95,  A.  M.  '98, 
Bethany  Col.;  Ph.  D.  '05,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Dir.  Sch.  of  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Wis.,  Madison, 
Wis.,   since  1916. 

Henry,  David  W.,  B.  A.  'n,  Norm.  Col.; 
M.  A.  '16,  T.  C.  Columbia;  Dean,  Col. 
of  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Toledo,  Admin.  Bldg., 
nth  and  111.  St.,  Toledo,  Ohio,  since  1919. 

Henzlik,  F.  E.,  B.  S.  '16,  Wbg.  St.  Tchrs. 
Col.;  M.  A.  '23,  Ph.  D.  '24,  T.  C.  Co- 
lumbia Univ.;  Prof,  of  Sch.  Admin.,  T.  C, 
Univ.    of   Nebr.,    Lincoln,    Nebr. 

Herlihy,  Charles  M.,  136  Oxford  St.,  Cam- 
bridge,  Mass. 

Herlinger,  H.  V.,  Ph.  B.  '13,  Grove  City; 
Supt.    of   Sch.,   Indiana,    Pa.,   since    1922. 

Herring,  John  H.,  A.  M.  '09,  Ohio  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  25  Perry  St.,  Lambertville, 
N.   J.,   since   1917. 

Herrington,  F.  A.,  A.  B.  '94,  Olivet,  Col.; 
A.  M.  '04,  Indiana  Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
DePue,    111.,   since   1922. 

Herron,  A.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,   Caney,  Kans. 

Herron,  Helen,  B.  A.  '11.  M.  A.  '13,  Tulane 
Univ. ;  Supr.  of  Student  Teaching,  New 
Orleans  Norm.  Sch.,  1933  Elysian  Fields 
Ave.,    New   Orleans,    La. 

Hershmer,  John  T.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Baltimore 
Co.   Sch.,   Towson,   Md. 

Hervey,  Henry  Dwight,  A.  B.  '89,  Denison; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Little  Falls,  N.  Y.,  since 
1922. 

Heusner,  W.   S.,   A.   B.   '94,   Ohio  Wesleyan 

Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Salina,  Kansas,  since 

1913- 
Hick,    Hugh    R.,    B.    S.    '03,    Denison    Univ.; 

M.    A.    '24,    T.    C,    Columbia    Univ.;    Supt. 

of    Sch.,    80S    N.    Twelfth    St.,    Cambridge, 

Ohio. 

Hickey,  D.  Edward,  B.  A.  in  Ed.  '10,  M.  A. 
'12,  Univ.  of  Minn.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hill- 
crest  Apts.,  South  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  since 
1911. 

Hickman,  J.  E.,  B.  S.  '92,  N.  N.  Univ., 
Ohio;  A.  B.  '02.  Univ.  of  Nashville;  Supt. 
of   Scr\,    Box   696,   Ada,   Okla.,   since    1917. 

Hickman,  J.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hinton,  W. 
Va. 

Hicks,  Frank  W.,  A.  B.  '05,  Cornell,  Col.; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Minot,   N.   D. 


392 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Higbie,  Edgar  C,  A.  B.  '07,  A.  M.  '09,  Univ. 
of  Minn.;  Ph.  D.  '20,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Pres.  Eastern  State  Normal  Sch.,  Madison, 
S.    D.,   since    1920. 

Higgins,  Lothrop  D.,  Prin.  State  Normal 
Sch.,  Danbury,   Conn. 

Highley,  A.  E.,  B.  S.  '99,  Marion  Col.; 
Diploma  '05,  Ind.  State  Normal;  A.  B. 
'10,  A.  M.  '11,  Ind.  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Lafayette,   Ind.,   since   1923. 

Hill,  A.  B.,  State  Supt.  of  Pub.  Instr.,  Little 
Rock,  Ark. 

Hill,  Albert  H.,  B.  A.  '87,  Richmond,  Col.; 
M.  A.  '14,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  1622  W.  Grace  St.,  Rich- 
mond,  Va.,   since   1919. 

Hill,  Clyde  M.,  A.  M.  '15,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Pres.  State  Tchrs.  Col.,  811  S.  Florence 
St.,    Springfield,    Mo.,    since    1918. 

Hill,  C.  Willard,  B.  S.  '19,  Kansas  State 
Normal;  A.  M.  '20,  Univ.  of  Chicago; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,   Marengo,   111.,  since   1920. 

Hill,  E.  N.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  113  E.  Elm  St., 
Olathe,   Kans. 

Hill,  Henry  H.,  A.  B.,  M.  A.  '21,  Univ.  of 
Va. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  173,  Walnut 
Ridge   Ark.,   since   1922. 

Hill,  J.  A.,  B.  A.  '02,  Univ.  of  Tex.;  M. 
A.  '16,  Univ.  of  Calif.;  Pres.  West  Tex. 
State  Tchrs.  Col.,  Canyon,  Tex.,  since 
1918. 

Hill,  Ralph  E.,  A.  B.  '01,  Albion  Col.; 
M.  A..  '09,  Univ.  of  Louisville,  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Somerset,    Ky.,   since   1920. 

Hill,  T.  P.,  Asst.  State  Supv.  Rural  Sch., 
Middlebourne,   W.    Va. 

Hillegas,  M.  B.,  106  Morningside  Dr.,  New- 
York,    N.    Y. 

Hillman,  James  E.,  B.  S.  '19,  A.  M.  '20, 
Ph.  D.  '24,  Geo.  Peabody  Col.  for  Tchrs.; 
Dir.  Tchr.  Tr.,  State  Dept.  Ed.,  Raleigh, 
N.   C,  since   1923. 

Hine,  Roderick  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Dedham, 
Mass. 

Hines,  Linnaeus  N.,  A.  B.  '94,  M.  A.  '08, 
Ind.  Univ.,  Pres.  Ind.  State  Normal  Sch., 
Terre   Haute,   Ind.,   since  1921. 

Hinshaw,  I.  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Checotah, 
Okla. 

Hitch,  R.  M.,  Dist.  Supt.,  633  Arlington  PL, 
Chicago,   111.,   since   1909. 

Hitchcock,  Clarence  C,  B.  S.  '14,  St.  Law- 
rence Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  20  Franklin 
St.,    Bridgeton,    N.   J. 

Hitchcock,  Fred  S.,  Supvg.  Prin.,  Chapman 
Tech.   H.  S.,    New  London,   Conn. 

Hixson,  J.  H.,  B.  S.  in  Ed.  '22,  M.  A.  '22, 
Ohio  State  Univ.;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Wapakoneta,   Ohio,   since   1922. 

Hobbs,  William  C,  A.  B.  *8i,  Bates  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  82  High  St.,  Bristol,  R.  I., 
since   1917. 

Hobson,  Clifton  H.,  Ph.  B.  '04,  Brown 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Palmer,  Mass.,  since 
1911. 


Hodge,  Lamont  F.,  A.  B.  '97,  A.  M.  '21, 
Colgate  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  50  Hamil- 
ton   Ave.,    Yonkers,    N.    Y.,    since    1922. 

Hodgkins,  George  W.,  1821  Kalorama  Road, 
Washington,    D.    C. 

Hoffman,  Mrs.  A.  H.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Court-  House,    Des    Moines,    la. 

Hoffman,  Jason  S.,  A.  B.  '79,  Rutgers;  Co. 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  152  Main  St.,  Flemington, 
N.    J.,   since    1895. 

Hoffman,  Miss  M.  Gazelle,  B.  A.  'n,  El- 
mira;  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lewiston,  N. 
Y.,   since   1915. 

Hogge,  Morgan  G.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  460 
S.    State    St.,    Chicago,    111. 

Hogue,  O.  Wendell,  650  Roe  Ave.,  Elmira, 
N.   Y. 

Holbrook,  C.  Ray,  B.  Ed.  '19,  M.  A.  '22, 
Univ.  of  Wash.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Gentry 
Bldg.,    San   Bernardino,    Calif.;    since    1923. 

Holdridge,  Newton  Clark,  B.  A.  '91,  M.  A. 
'95,  Colgate;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hammonton, 
N.    J.,   since   1897. 

Holland,  N.  S.,  A.  B.  '17,  So.  M.  E.  Univ.; 
Supt.   of   Sch.,   Stamford,   Tex.,   since    1919- 

Hollands,  W.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Deer  River, 
Minn. 

Holliday,  Lewis  P.,  A.  B.  '10,  Hillsdale 
Col.;  M.  A.  '17,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,    Crystal   Falls,   Mich.,   since   1923. 

Hollis,  E.  V.,  B.  S.,  M.  S.,  Miss.  A.  and  M. 
Col.;  A.  M.,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.;  Pres. 
Ga.  Norm.  Sch.,  Statesboro,  Ga.,  since 
1920. 

Holloway,  H.  V.,  A.  B.  '95,  A.  M.  '98, 
Wash.  Col.,  Md.;  Ph.  D.,  '14,  Univ.  of 
Pa.;  State  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  Dover,  Del., 
since   1921. 

Holman,  Carl,  A.  B.  '09,  Bates;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,   Pearl   River,    N.    Y. 

Holman,  Orin  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Littleton, 
N.  H. 

Holmes,  Henry  Wyman,  A,  B.  '03,  A.  M. 
'04,  Harvard  Univ. ;  Litt.  D.  '24,  Tufts 
Col. ;  Dean,  Grad.  Sch.  of  Ed.,  5  Law- 
rence Hall,  Harvard  Univ. ;  Cambridge, 
Mass.,   since    1920. 

Holmes,  Stanley  H.,  A.  B.  '87,  A.  M.  '90, 
Colby  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  Hall, 
New    Britain,    Conn.,    since    1906. 

Holmes,  William  H.,  A.  B.  '97,  Colby  Col.; 
Ph.  D.  '10,  Clark  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  60 
S.  Third  Ave.,  Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y., 
since  1913. 

Hoist,  John  H.,  M.  A.  '21,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Hd.  Dept.  of  Ed.,  715  S.  Third  Ave., 
Bozeman,    Mont.,    since    1921. 

Holston,  Evelyn  Turner,  B.  S.  '20,  A.  M. 
'21,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.;  Elem.  Supvr., 
Admin.  Bldg.,  Sch.  Dept.,  Springfield, 
Mass.,    since    1922. 

Holt,  Fred  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Edgerton,  Wis. 

Holt,   F.   O.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,  Janesville,   Wis. 

Homberger,  E.  H.,  A.  B.  '12,  A.  M.  '20, 
Colo.  State  Tchrs.  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
1508  Okla.,  Woodward,   Okla.,  since   1921. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


393 


Honeycutt,  A.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hender 
sonville,    N.   C. 

Hood,  W.  D.,  B.  A.  '94,  Yale  Univ.,  Prin. 
Gilbert  School,  Winsted,  Conn.,  since  1908 

Hook,  T.  E.,  C.  E.  '08,  Ohio  Northern 
Univ.;  A.  B.  '14,  A.  M.  '18,  Univ.  of 
Mich.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  421  Grant  St.,  Troy, 
Ohio,    since    1919. 

Hooper,  Elsie  E.,  B.  A.  '17,  Yankton  Col.; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Plankinton,  S.  Dak., 
since   ig2i. 

Hopkins,  W.  Karl,  A.  B.  '06,  Univ.  of  Utah; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  538  Twenty-fifth  St.,  Ogden, 
Utah,   since   1919. 

Hopkins,  Walter  G.,  Supt.  -of  Sch.,  505  N. 
7th    St.,    Tonkawa,    Okla. 

Horn,  Ernest,  B.  S.  '07,  A.  M.  08,  Univ. 
of  Mo.;  Ph.  D.  '14,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Prof,  of  Ed.,  Dir.  of  the  Univ.  Elem. 
Sch.,  State  Univ.  of  Iowa.,  Iowa  City 
Iowa,    since   1915. 

Horn,  P.  W.,  M.  A.  '88,  Central  Col.;  LL. 
D.  '17,  Southwestern  Univ.;  Pres.  Tex. 
Tech.    Col.,    Lubbock,    Tex.,    since    1924. 

Hornby,  A.  M.,  B.  S.  '12,  Ohio  Wes.  U. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  506  E.  Findlay  St.,  Carey, 
Ohio,    since    1920. 

Horner,  Harlan  Hoyt,  212  State  St.,  Albany 
N.   Y. 

Horstman,  Elizabeth,  R.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Court   House,   Austin,  Minn. 

Horton,  A.  D.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  18  Main  St., 
Weston,   W.    Va. 

Horton,  Deo  Wesley,  A.  B.  '09,  A.  M.  '13, 
Ind. ;    Supt.    of    Sch.,   Lafayette,    Ind. 

Hosic,  James  F.,  Ph.  B.  '01,  Ph.  M.  '02, 
Chicago  Univ. ;  Ph.  D.  '20,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Asso.  Prof,  of  Ed.,  Tchrs.  Col., 
Columbia  Univ.,  525  W.  120th  St.,  New 
York,    N.    Y.,    since    1921. 

Hoskinson,  J.  H.,  A.  B.  '07,  A.  M.  'ir, 
Indiana  Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Whiting, 
Ind.,    since    1915. 

Hounchell,  Paul,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Uniontown, 
Ala. 

Housh,  Early  T.,  Ph.  B.  '04,  No.  111.  Col.; 
A.  B.  '12,  Highland  Park  Col.;  M.  A., 
'16,  State  Univ.  of  la.;  412  Shops  Bldg. 
Des   Moines,   Iowa. 

Houston,  G.  O.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  De  Soto 
Parish,    Mansfield,    La.,   since    1912. 

Howard,  Daniel,  A.  M.  '98,  Brown  Univ. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Windsor,   Conn.,  since  1910. 

Howe,  Charles  Sumner,  B.  S.  '78,  Mass. 
Agr.  Col.  and  Boston  Univ.;  Ph.  D.  '87, 
Univ.  of  Wooster;  Sc.  D.  '05,  Armour 
Inst,  of  Tech.;  LL.  D.  '08,  Mt.  Union 
Col.;  LL.  D.  '11,  Oberlin  Col.;  LL.  D. 
'24,  Western  Reserve  Univ. ;  Pres.  Case 
Sch.  of  Applied  Science,  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
since  1902. 

Howe,  Sherman  L.,  B.  A.  '93,  M.  A.  '95. 
Colgate;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  163  Wall  St., 
Corning,    N.    Y.,   since   1922. 

Howell,  Clarence  E.,  B.  S.  '17,  Jas.  Millikin 
Univ.;  A.  M.  '23,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  166  William  St.,  New 
Bedford,   Mass.,   since   1922. 


Howell,   D.   A.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,  Linden,   N.   J. 

Howell,  Henry  B.,  A.  B.  '86,  Lafayette  Col.; 
A.  M.  '90,  Columbia  Univ.;  Ph.  D.  '10, 
N.  Y.  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg., 
Phillipsburg,    N.   J.,    since    1921. 

Howerth,  Joseph,  A.  B.  '94,  Cornell  Univ. ; 
Supt.   of   Sch.,   Shamokin,    Pa. 

Howes,  Alfred  F.,  A.  B.  '87,  A.  M.  '92, 
Amherst;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  39  Hudson  St., 
Manchester,    Conn.,    since    1911. 

Howes,  Herbert  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  55  Flor- 
ence  Ave.,    Norwood,    Mass. 

Hoy,  L.  B.,   Supt.  of  Sch.,  Gideon,   Mo. 

Hoyman,  W.  H.,  A.  B.  '09,  Iowa  State 
Tchrs.  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Toledo,  Iowa, 
since    igi6. 

Hubbard,  Warren,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  720  De 
Kalb   Ave.,   Sycamore,    111. 

Hudelson,  Earle,  College  of  Ed.,  Univ:  of 
Minn.,    Minneapolis,    Minn. 

Huff,  Annie  Laurie,  A.  B.  '07,  M.  A.  '15, 
Carson  and  Newman  Col.;  Supt.  City  Sch., 
Box   611,   Pulaski,   Tenn.,   since   1918. 

Huff,  Joseph  W.,  A.  B.  '05,  A.  M.  '06,  Univ. 
of  Pa.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Upper  Darby  Br., 
Philadelphia,    Pa.,    since    1909. 

Huff,   Wm.    F.,   3030  Vista   St.,   Long   Beach, 

Calif. 

Huffman,  S.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Waseca, 
Minn. 

Huffman,  W.  Evin,  Ph.  B.  '12,  Denison 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  159  Granville  Rd.  E., 
Worthington,   Ohio,   since   1921. 

Hughes,  Charles  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  City 
Hall,   Sacramento,   Calif. 

Hughes,  F.  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  823  Gandy 
St.,    Denison,    Tex. 

Hughes,  Hilda,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court 
House,    La    Grange,    Ind. 

Hughes,  Percy  M.,  A.  B.  '86,  Johns  Hop- 
kins Univ.;  LL.  B.  '90,  LL.  M.  '91,  Geo. 
Wash.  U. ;  Ph.  D.  '15,  Syracuse  U. ;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Syracuse,    N.    Y.,    since    1911. 

Hughes,  Rees  H.,  A.  B.  '13,  Washburn  Col.; 
Supt.    of  Sch.,   Parsons,    Kans.,   since   1922. 

Hughey,  A.  H.  '03,  Vanderbilt;  LL.  B.  '08, 
George  Washington  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
El  Paso,   Tex.,   since   1919. 

Hulten,  Charles  E.,  Ph.  B.,  Wisconsin  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  1010  Main  St.,  Marinette, 
Wis.,    since    1924. 

Humphrey,  Cecil  F.,  4710  Maryland  Ave., 
Chicago,    111. 

Humphrey,  P.  B.,  B.  Pd.  '05,  M.  Pd.  '06, 
State  Tchrs.  Col.;  B.  S.  'n,  Kirksville, 
Mo.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Cleveland,  Okla., 
since    1921. 

Hunkins,  R.  V.,  B.  A.  '14,  Univ.  of  Nebr. ; 
M.  A.  '21,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,   Lead,    S.    D.,  since    1922. 

Hunt,  Charles  W.,  A.  B.  '04,  Brown  Univ. ; 
A.  M.  '10,  Ph.  D.  '22,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Dean,  Cleveland  Sch.  of  Ed.,  Stearns  Rd. 
and  E.  109th  St.,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  since 
1924. 


394 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Hunt,  Harry  A.,  A.  B.  '01,  William  and 
Mary  Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Armistead  Bldg., 
Portsmouth,    Va.,    since    1909. 

Hunt,  Lyman  C,  A.  B.  '12,  Univ.  of  Vt. ; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Burlington,  Vt.,  since   1922. 

Hunter,  Fred  M.,  A.  B.  '05,  Univ.  of  Nebr. ; 
A.  M.  '19,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.;  Ed. 
D.  '24,  Univ.  of  Calif.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
City   Hall,    Oakland,    Calif.,   since   1917. 

Hunter,  Hiram  T.,  B.  A.  '12,  Wake  Forest 
Col.;  M.  A.  '17,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Ed.  M.  '22,  Harvard  Univ.;  Pres.  Cul- 
lowhee  State  Norm.,  Cullowhee,  N.  C, 
since   1923. 

Hunting,  W.  J.,  State  Supt.  of  Pub.  Instr., 
Carson  City,   Nev. 

Hurst,  Albert  S.,  B.  A.  '99,  Univ.  of  To- 
ronto; M.  A.  '04,  Ph.  D.  '05,  Yale  Univ.; 
Dean,  Tchrs.  Col.;  Syracuse  Univ.,  Syra- 
cuse,   N.    Y.,    since    1920. 

Hurst,  James,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Norfolk, 
Va. 

Husted,  Milton  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Municipal 
Bldg.,    North    Bergen,    N.    J. 

Huston,  W.  F.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Cam- 
bridge,  111.,  since   ig20. 

Hutchinson,  Harvey  O.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  El- 
mira,   N.   Y. 

Hutchinson,  Sherburn  C,  A.  B.  '92,  A.  M. 
'93,  Syracuse;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Montpelier, 
Vt.,  since    1911. 

Hutchison,  N.  F.,  A.  B.  '11,  Ind.  Univ.; 
Supt.    of    Sch.,    Salem,    Ind.,    since    1921. 

Hutton,  C.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  200  W.  10th 
St.,   Bristow,   Okla. 

Hyndman,  R.  W.,  A.  B.  '15,  Ind.  State 
Norm.;  A.  M.  '21,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  26  W.  Elm  St.,  Canton, 
111.,    since    1923. 

Hynes,  Edward,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2005 
Milan,    New   Orleans,    La. 

Ignatius,  Mother  M.,  A.  M.  '15,  Col.  of 
New  Rochelle;  Dean  Col.  of  New  Ro- 
chelle,    New    Rochelle,    N.    Y.,    since    1918. 

Her,  Ernst,  S.  B.  in  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Chi.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Downers  Grove,  111.,  since 
1923. 

Imboden,  Sarah  Mark,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
463    S.    Monroe,    Decatur,    111. 

Ingram,  Katherine  P.,  A.  B.  '21,  Randolph- 
Macon  Woman's  Col.;  Supt.  of  Co.  Sch., 
Bolivar,   Tenn.,   since   1922. 

Inlow,  H.  E.,  A.  B.,  Pacific  Univ.;  LL.  B., 
Univ.  of  Ore.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Pendleton, 
Ore.,   since   1920. 

Inman,  J.  R.,  A.  B.  '05,  Hillsdale  Col., 
Mich.;  A.  M.  '14,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Red  Oak,  la.,  since   1914. 

Inscoe,  L.  S.,  B.  A.  '15,  Wake  Forest  Col.; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Nashville,  N.  C,  since 
1919. 

Ireland,  E.  Ward,  B.  S.  '08,  Columbia;  A. 
M.  '12,  Tchrs.  Col.,  N.  N.  C. ;  Regional 
Supvr.  of  Sch.,  2g  Fairview  Ave.,  Dan- 
bury,    Conn.,    since    1919. 


Ireland,  J.  W.,  A.  B.  '02,  A.  M.  '03,  Centre 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  3"  W.  Third,  Frank- 
fort,   Ky.,   since   1918. 

Ireland,  Ralph  P.,  '93,  Bridgewater  Normal; 
'00,  Tchrs.  Sch.  of  Science;  Ele.  Supv. 
and  Dir.  of  Ext.  Work,  1  Kent  Circle, 
Gloucester,    Mass.,   since    1894. 

Irons,  R.  B.,  A.  B.  '07,  Wabash  Col.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Winona,  Minn., 
since    1920. 

Irwin,  W.  W.,  M.  E.  '98,  Slippery  Rock 
Normal;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Meadville,  Pa., 
since  1920. 

Isanogle,  Alvey  M.,  A.  B.  '98,  St.  Johns 
Col. ;  A.  M.  '24,  Johns  Hopkins  Univ. ; 
Prof,  of  Ed.,  West.  Md.  College,  West- 
minster,  Md.,   since   1920. 

Ives,  C.  A.,  Dean,  Col.  of  Ed.,  La.  State 
Univ.,   Baton   Rouge,   La. 

Ivy,  H.  M.,  A.  B.  '03,  A.  M.  '04,  Central 
Col.,  Mo.;  Ph.  D.  '22,  Peabody  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  Hall,  Meridian,  Miss., 
since   1923. 

Jack,  William  B.,  A.  B.  '00,  Colby  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  30  Eastern  Promenade, 
Portland,   Me.,   since   1922. 

Jackson,     F.     S.,  M.     E.    P.     '98,     Mansfield 

S.    N.    S.;    Ph.  B.    *n,    Grove    City    Col.; 

Supt.    of    Sch.,  Punxsutawney,    Pa.,    since 
1908. 

Jackson,  F.  W.,  A.  B.  '07,  Bates  Col.;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Madison,    N.    H.,   since    1921. 

Jackson,  Halliday  R.,  A.  B.  '04,  Swathmore 
Col.;  Supervising  Prin.,  11  N.  Weymouth 
Ave.,   Ventnor   City,   N.   J.,  since   1915. 

Jackson,  J.  A.,  Ph.  B.  'n,  Mt.  Union  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  841,  Clarksburg,  W. 
Va.,  since   igi6. 

Jackson,  Lambert  L.,  Ph.  D.  '06,  Columbia 
Univ.;  D.  Pd.  '06,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Asst.  State  Com.  of  Ed.,  Trenton,  N.  J., 
since   1920. 

Jacobs,  Walter  B.,  A.  B.  '82,  A.  M.  '85, 
Brown  Univ.;  Dir.  Sch.  of  Ed.,  Prof,  of 
Ed.,  310  Olney  St.,  Providence,  R.  I., 
since   1901. 

Jaggard,  Guy  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  605  Cedar 
St.,   Kingman,   Kans. 

Jahr,  Charles  A.,  Ph.  B.  '07,  Univ.  of  Wis.; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Elkhorn,   Wis.,   since  1916. 

Jamison,  Mary  E.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Belle 
Fourche,  S.  D. 

Jantzen,  Daniel  F.,  Supvg.  Prin.,  3711  N. 
Central  Ave.,   Phoenix,   Ariz. 

Jedlicka,  A.  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Proctor, 
Minn. 

Jeffers,  Fred  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Painesdale, 
Mich. 

Jeffers,  Granville  B.,  A.  B.  '03,  Stanford 
Univ.;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  108  Union  St., 
Ed.  Bldg.,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  since  1922. 

Jenkins,  F.  F.,  A.  B.  '18,  William  and  Mary 
Col.;  Div.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Franklin,  Va., 
since  1924. 

Jenner,  G.  Levant,  Supt.  o'f  Sch.,  Bay  City, 
Mich. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


395 


Jennings,  Egbert,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Kennett, 
Mo. 

Jennings,  M.  P.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  100  W. 
Mathews    St.,    Elizabeth    City,    N.    C. 

Jensen,  Christian  N.,  B.  S.  A.  '08,  Utah 
Ag.  Col.;  M.  S.  A.  '09,  Ph.  D.  '12,  Cor- 
nell Univ.;  State  Supt.  of  Pub.  Instr., 
Salt   Lake   City,   Utah,   since   1922. 

Jensen,  D.  C,  Supt.  Jordan  Dist.  No.  2, 
Sandy,  Utah. 

Jensen,  Frank  A.,  M.  A.  '13,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Rockford,  111.,  since 
1914. 

Jessup,  Andrew  S.,  A.  B.  '11,  Ind.  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  1240,  Cheyenne,  Wyo., 
since  1918. 

Jessup,  Walter  Albert,  A.  B.  '03,  Earlham 
Col. ;  M.  A.  '08,  Hanover  Col. ;  Ph.  D. 
'11,  Columbia  Univ.;  LL.  D.  '22,  Tchrs. 
Col.,  Wis.;  Pres.  State  Univ.  of  la.,  Old 
Capitol  Bldg.,  Iowa  City,  Iowa,  since 
1916. 

Johnson,  A.  P.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  435, 
Kankakee,    111.,    since    1921. 

Johnson,  Antone,  B.  S.  '16,  Cornell  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  612,  Emmetsburg,  la., 
since    1922. 

Johnson,  B.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Madison,  S. 
Dak. 

Johnson,  C.  W.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O. 
Box   438,    Dothan,   Ala. 

Johnson,  E.  W.,  A.  B.  '22,  Univ.  of  Mich.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Berrien  Springs,  Mich., 
since   ig22. 

Johnson,  Frank  Clinton,  A.  B.  '97,  Dart- 
mouth; A.  M.  '06,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  10  High  St.,  Ayer,  Mass.,  since 
1909. 

Johnson,  G.  L.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  L.  D. 
56,   Staunton,   Va. 

Johnson,  Henry  C,  A.  B.  '03,  M.  A.  '07, 
Univ.  of  la.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1512  Upas 
St.,    San    Diego,    Calif.,    since    1919. 

Johnson,  Lillia  E.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  402 
N.    Oxford    Ave.,    Eau    Claire,    Wis. 

Johnson,  Sexton,  A.  B.  '20,  Rollins  Winter 
Park;  Supt  of  Sch.,  Orlando,  Fla.,  since 
1916. 

Johnson,  S.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Brooking, 
S.  Dak. 

Johnson,  Thomas  E.,  A.  B.  '16,  LL.  D.  '23, 
Alma  Col.;  M.  E.  D.  '21,  Mich.  State 
Normal  Col.;  LL.  D.  '20,  Lincoln  Mem. 
Univ.;  LL.  D.  '23,  Olivet  Col.;  State 
Supt.  of  Pub.  Instr.,  Lansing,  Mich.,  since 
1919- 

Johnston,  W.  D.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Weirton, 
W.  Va. 

Joiner,  C.  E.,  B.  S.  '92,  A.  M.  '95,  Le  Roy, 
111.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Le   Roy,   111. 

Jones,  Avery  C,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court 
House,   Oshkosh,  Wis. 

Jones,  C.  Edward,  Pd.  B.  '04,  Pd.  M.  '05, 
N.  Y.  State  Col.  for  Tchrs.;  B.  S.  '07, 
M.  A.  '08,  Ph.  D.  '11,  New  York  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  Hall,  Albany,  N.  Y., 
since    1912. 


Jones,  Evan  E.,  A.  B.  '16,  Hamilton;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,   Mechanicsville,   N.   Y.,   since   1922. 

Jones,  Frank  O.,  Dist.  Supt.  N.  W.  Dist., 
59    Oakland   Terrace,    Hartford,    Conn. 

Jones  H.  W.,  B.  S.  '09,  Cornell  Col.;  M.  A. 
'22,  Univ.  Calif.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  800  Mag- 
nolia   Ave.,    Piedmont,    Calif.,    since    1921. 

Jones,  Irene,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Leslie,  Ark. 

Jones,  Margaret  R.,  Wash.  Sch.,  Genesee  Co. 
Norm.,    Flint,    Mich. 

Jones,  Olive  M.,  Prin.  Pub.  Sch.  120,  Pres. 
N.  E.  A.  1923-24,  Park  Ave.  Hotel,  New 
York,    N.   Y. 

Jones,  Robinson  G.,  A.  B.  '94,  Ohio  North- 
ern Univ.;  A.  B.,  M.  A.  '12,  Columbia;  D. 
Ped.  '21,  Ohio  Northern  Univ.;  Pres. 
Dept  of  Superintendence,  1921,  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  Bd.  of  Ed.  Bldg.,  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
since    1919. 

Jones,  R.  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lyceum  Bldg., 
Memphis,    Tenn. 

Jones,  T.  J.,  B.  L.  '96,  Univ.  of  Wis.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  621  71st  Ave.,  West  Allis,  Wis., 
since   1907. 

Joseph,  Edna,  Elem.  Supvr.,  435  W.  Sixth 
St.,    Elyria,    Ohio. 

Joyce,  Darrell,  A.  B.  '03,  Miami  Univ. ;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  209  So.  2nd  St.,  Hamilton,  Ohio, 
since   1903. 

Judd,  Charles  Hubbard,  A.  B.  '94,  Wesleyan 
Univ. ;  Ph.  D.  'g6,  Leipzig  Univ. ;  A.  M. 
'07,  Yale  Univ.;  LL.  D.  '09,  Miami  Univ.; 
LL.  D.  '13,  Wesleyan  Univ.;  Prof,  and 
Head  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Chairman  Dept.  of 
Psychology,  Dir.  Sch.  of  Educ,  Univ.  of 
Chicago,    Chicago,    111.,    since    1909. 

Kaiser,  Mrs.  A.  A.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box 
594,    Carlsbad,   N.    M.,   since    1923. 

Kalder,  Arthur  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hartford, 
Mich. 

Kaye,  Orin  W.,  A.  B.,  Olivet  Col.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Paw   Paw,   Mich. 

Kealey,  Daniel  S.,  A.  B.  '14,  LL.  B.  '17, 
Fordham;  '18,  Stevens  Marine  Eng.  Sch.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  since  1922. 

Keating,  John  Francis,  A.  B.  '92,  Ohio 
Wesleyan  Univ. ;  M.  A.  '06,  D.  L.  '14, 
Univ.  of  Denver;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Pueblo, 
Colo.,   since    1896. 

Keator,  Maud,  B.  A.  '14,  M.  A.  '17,  Tchrs. 
Col.,  Columbia  Univ.;  Dir.  Special  Ed. 
and  Stand.,  State  Bd.  of  Ed.,  Capitol, 
Hartford,    Conn.,    since    1922. 

Keeler,  L.  W.,  Ph.  B.  '00,  A.  M.  '10,  Mich. 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  216  E.  9th  St., 
Michigan    City,    Ind.,    since    1904. 

Keen,  Philip  M.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bay 
City,    Mich. 

Keene,  Charles  H.,  A.  B.  '98,  M.  D.  '02, 
Harvard;  Director  Bureau  of  Health  Ed., 
State  Dept.  of  Pub.  Instr.,  Harrisburg, 
Pa.,   since   192 1. 

Keister,  W.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  218  Franklin 
St.,    Harrisonburg,    Va.,    since    1894. 

Keith,  Allen  P.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  166  William 
St.,  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  since  1908. 


396 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Keith,  Edna,  Diploma  '12,  Western  111. 
T.  C. ;  Elementary  Supervisor,  1211  Cass 
St.,  Joliet,   111.,    since    1912. 

Keith,  John  A.  H.,  A.  B.  '99,  A.  M.  'oo, 
Harvard;  D.  Pd.  '19,  Miami  Univ.;  Prin. 
btate    Normal,    Indiana,    Pa.,    since    19 17. 

Keith,  W.  P.,  A.  B.  '06,  Ouachita  Col.; 
Supt.  ,of  Sch.,  Court  House,  Pine  Bluff, 
Ark.,    since    1919. 

Kelder,  J.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  146  Sanborn 
Ave.,    Big    Rapids,    Mich. 

Keller,  Charles  P.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  326  N. 
Forest   Ave.,    Brazil,    Ind. 

Keller,  J:  A.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Andalusia, 
Ala. 

Keller,  Paul  G.  W.,  B.  S.  '01,  Univ.  of  Chi- 
cago; Supt.  of  Sch.,  Eau  Claire,  Wis., 
since   1924. 

Kelley,  Roy  B.,  B.  S.  '19,  Syracuse,  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  since 
1921. 

Kelly,  B.  W.,  B.  S.  '02,  Earlham;  Supt.  of 
fcxh.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Greencastle,  Ind.,  since 
rg2i. 

Kelly,  Daniel  James,  B.  S.  '04,  Pd.  D.  'ig, 
Syracuse;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Binghamton, 
N.    Y.,   since   1912. 

Kemp,  W.  W.,  Ph.  D.  '12,  Tchrs.  Col. 
Columbia;  Dean  Sch.  of  Ed.,  Univ.  o£ 
Calif.,  417  Library  Bldg.,  U.  C,  Berke- 
ley,   Calif.,   since   1923. 

Kendall,  F.  H.,  A.  B.  '87,  Ohio  Wesleyan 
Univ.;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  205  Mentor  Ave. 
Painesville,    Ohio,    since    1922. 

Kenna,  J.  M.,  Supt.  Agr.  H.  S.,  Summit, 
Miss. 

Kennedy,  Feme,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Courli 
House,   Redwood    Falls,    Minn. 

Kennedy,  James  Wilmer,  A.  M.  '92,  N.  Y. 
Univ.;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bd.  of  Ed. 
City   Hall,   Newark,    N.   J.,   since   1907. 

Kenney,  Thomas,  1357  12th  St.,  Milwau- 
kee,   Wis. 

Keppel,  Mark,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  504  Thorpe 
Bldg.,   Los   Angeles,   Calif. 

Kern,  Ella  M.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Grand 
Island,    Nebr.,   since    1920. 

Ketler,  Frank  C,  A.  B.  '11,  Grove  City- 
Col.;  Super.  Prin.,  Midland,  Pa.,  since 
1921. 

Keyes,  Charles  H.,  A.  B.  '08,  Amherst  Col.; 
Ed.  M.  '24,  R.  I.  Col.  of  Ed.;  Supt.  08 
Sch.,  Box  61,  Barrington,  R.  I.,  since  1919. 

Keyworth,  M.  R.,  Supt.,  232  W.  Grand  St. 
Hamtramck,   Mich. 

Kiefer,  R,  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1024  Robbins 
Ave.,    Niles,  Ohio. 

Kies,  Harry  D.,  M.  A.  '20  State  Univ.  of 
la.;  Ph.  B.  Drake  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch. 
Mankato,    Minn.,    since    1923. 

Kimball,  Justin  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Dallas, 
Texas. 

King,  F.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  317  N.  Mul- 
berry,   Marshall,    Mich. 


King,  I.  F.,  A.  B.  '18,  Univ.  of  Mich.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  35  Morse  St.,  Coldwater, 
Mich.,   since    1919. 

King,  Jeannette  Moore,  B.  S.  '92,  '20,  Univ. 
of  Nashville,  Peabody  Col.;  Co.  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  Court  House,  Murfreesboro,  Tenn., 
since   1923. 

King,  Robert  M.,  536  So.  Clark  St.,  Chi- 
cago,   111. 

Kingman,  Frederic  W.,  A.  B.  '10,  Harvard; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  22  Pond  St.,  Natick,  Mass., 
since    1922. 

Kingsford,  A-  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Baraboo, 
Wis. 

Kinney,    F.    H.,   Supt.   of   Sch.,    Evart,    Mich. 

Kinney,  G.  V.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Red  Wing, 
Minn. 

Kircher,  H.  W.,  M.  Ph.  '04,  Ph.  B.  *o3, 
Univ.  of  Wis.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg., 
Sheboygan,    Wis,    since    1924. 

Kirk,  John  R.,  LL.  D.  '07,  Mo.  Wesleyan 
Col.,  Park  Col.;  Pres.  State  Tchrs.  Col., 
Kirksville,    Mo.,    since    1899. 

Kirk,  W.  H.,  B.  A.  '87,  M.  A.  '90,  Baldwin- 
Wallace  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  E.  Cleveland, 
O.,    since    1891. 

Kirkendall,  Fred  C,  B.  Pd.  '93,  M.  Pd.  '99, 
D.  Pd.  '17,  Ohio  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Crestview,  Dresden  Rd.,  Zanesville,  Ohio, 
since   1917. 

Kirkpatrick,    Lee,    Supt.    of    Sch.,    Paris,    Ky. 

Kittrell,  Charles  A.,  M.  A.  '20,  State  Univ. 
of  la.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Central  Bldg.,  Le 
Mars,   la.,   since   1922. 

Klager,  Benj.,  B.  Pd.  '15,  Mich.  State  Nor- 
mal; A.  B.  '19,  Univ.  of  Mich.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Manistee,    Mich.,    since    1921. 

Klapper,  Paul,  B.  A.  '04,  Col.  City  of  N.  Y.; 
Ph.  D.  '09.  N.  Y.  Univ. ;  Prof,  of  Ed., 
Dean  Sch.  of  Ed.,  Col.  City  of  N.  Y., 
New    York,    N.    Y.,    since    1921. 

Kline,  Charles  W.,  A.  B.  '04,  Kans.  Univ.; 
M.  A.  '19,  Columbia  Univ.;  LL.  D.  '24, 
Coe  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  East  H.  S.  Bldg., 
Waterloo,    Iowa,    since    19 n. 

Klonower,     Henry,     B.     S.     '15,  M.     A.     '20, 

Univ.     of     Pa.;     Asst.     Dir.,  Tchr.     Bur., 

State     Dept.     of    Pub.     Instr.,  Harrisburg, 
Pa.,    since    1920. 

Knapp,  Ezra  Fred,  120  W.  Genesee  St., 
Syracuse,   N.   Y. 

Knapp,  Thad.  Johnson,  Ph.  B.  '98,  Mich.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Highland  Park,  Mich.,  since 
1911. 

Knarr,  H.  E.,  B.  Accts.  '02,  B.  S.  '09,  Val- 
paraiso Univ.;  A.  B.  '12,  A.  M.  '13,  Oska- 
loosa  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Des  Plaines, 
111.,  since   1922. 

Knode,  J.  C,  A.  B.  '08,  A.  M.  '22,  Univ. 
of  Nebr.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg., 
Laramie,  Wyo.,   since   1921. 

Knoelk,  William  C,  A.  B.  '07,  A.  B.  '24, 
Univ.  of  Wis.;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  368 
Kane    Place,    Milwaukee,   Wis.,   since    ig23. 

Knox,  W.  F.,  B.  S.  '13,  Drury  Col.;  A.  M. 
'21,  Univ.  of  Mo.;  Supt.'  of  Sch.,  400  N. 
Sixth   St.,   St.    Charles,    Mo. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


397 


Knox,  W.  J.,  B.  S.  '24,  S.  W.  Tex.  Tchrs. 
Col. ;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  414  Russell 
Bldg.,    San   Antonio,   Tex.,   since   1919. 

Knudsen,  Milton  H.,  A.  B.  '17,  B.  Y.  U. ; 
M.  S.  '20,  la.  State  Col.;  Ph.D.  '22; 
Pres.  Snow  College,  Ephraim,  Utah,  since 
1924. 

Knudtson,  O.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Egan,  S. 
Dak. 

Kocher,  Walter  L.,  A.  B.  '20,  Muskingum; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Mingo  Junc- 
tion,   Ohio,   since    1922. 

Kolb,  Philip  A.,  Ph.  B.  '01,  Univ.  of  Wis.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wauwatosa,  Wis.,  since 
1908. 

Koons,  G.  J.,  Diploma  '00,  Eastern  111. 
State  Normal  Sch.;  A.  B.  '12,  A.  M.  '22, 
Univ.  of  111.;  Prin.  Twp.  High  Sch.,  922 
N.    Chicago    St.,    Pontiac,    111.,    since    1917. 

Koontz,  James  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  827  Pearl 
Ave.,    Joplin,    Mo. 

Koontz,  Norman  C,  A.  B.  '11,  Yale;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Titusville,    Pa.,    since   1922. 

Koopman,  G.  Robert,  A.  B.  '22,  Central 
Mich.  Normal;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Shepherd, 
Mich.,  since  1922. 

Koos,  L.  V.,  Univi  of  Minn.,  Minneapolis, 
Minn. 

Korb,  O.  J.,  B.  S.  '18,  Kent  State  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  1676  Green  Road,  South 
Euclid,    Ohio,    since    1921. 

Kranshaar,  R.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O. 
Box  807,  Mobridge,  S.  Dak. 

Kraybill,  A.  E.,  B.  Pd.  '02,  Millersville 
State  Norm. ;  A.  B.  '04,  Franklin  &  Mar- 
shall Col.;  A.  M.  '05,  Harvard;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,   779   N.   Charlotte   St.,   Pottstown,   Pa. 

Krebs,    Henry    C,    B.    S.    '89,    State  Normal 

Sch.,   Kutztown,    Pa. ;    A.    M.    '23,  Rutgers 

Col.;   Asso.   Prof,   of  Ed.,   Col.   of  William 
and    Mary,    Williamsburg,   Va. 

Kretsinger,  R.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Franklin, 
Nebr. 

Kroening,  Frank,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  in 
Farwell   Ave.,    Milwaukee,   Wis. 

Krout,  Charles  A.,  '  A.  B.  '87,  A.  M.  '90, 
Wittenberg  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Tiffin, 
Ohio,   since    1900. 

Kruschke,  Walter  F.,  Ph.  B.  '20,  Univ.  of 
Wis.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Kewaunee,  Wis.,  since 
1921. 

Kuhn,  Florence  C,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Charleston,  W.  Va. 

Laidlaw,  John  B.,  B.  S.  '01,  St.  Lawrence; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  1227  Walnut  St.,  Niagara 
Falls,    N.    Y.,   since   1916. 

Laing,  J.  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Roaring  Spring, 
Pa. 

Lake,  Charles  H.,  B.  A.  '09,  M.  A.  '10,  Ohio 
State  Univ.;  First  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Bd.  of  Ed.  Bldg.,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  since 
1920. 

Lake,  Sebastian,  B.  S.  '15,  la.  State  Col.; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Sac  City,   la.,  since    1917. 

Lamb,  T.  D..  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hundred,  W. 
Va. 


Lamkin,  Uel  W.,  N.  W.  Mo.  State  Tchrs. 
Col.,    Maryville,    Mo. 

Lancaster,  J.  W.,  B.  Ped.  '06,  M.  S.  '13, 
Univ.  of  Ky. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Georgetown, 
Ky.,   since   1922. 

Lance,  Jack,   Supt.  of  Sch.,  Waynesboro,  Ga. 

Lane,  Fletcher,  A.  B.  '05,  A.  M.  '23,  Univ. 
of  Nebr.;  LL.  B.  '10,  Univ.  of  Tex.;  Prof, 
of  Ed.,  John  Tarleton  Agr.  Col.,  Stephen- 
ville,   Tex.,  since  1920. 

Lane,  R.  E.,  B.  S.  '23,  M.  A.  C,  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  523  Park  Lane,  East  Lansing,  Mich., 
since   1923. 

Lange,  Edward  G.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  201  S. 
Division    St.,    Waupaca,    Wis. 

Lange,  Emil,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Head  Dept.  of 
Ed.,  So.  State  Normal  Sch.,  Springfield, 
S.   D. 

Langwith,  J.  E.,  A.  B.  '13,  S.  W.  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  902  N.  Rockwell  Ave., 
Terrell,   Tex.,   since   1923. 

Langworthy,  Harry  W.,  Ph.  B.  '07,  Alfred; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  511  Broad  St.,  Oneida, 
N.   Y.,  since   1921. 

Lantz,  P.  G.,  A.  B.  '10,  Ind.  Univ.;  A.  M. 
'13,  Univ.  of  Wis.;  Supt.  of  Tr.  Sch.,  Cen- 
tral Mich.  Normal  Sch.,  Mt.  Pleasant, 
Mich.,   since   1923. 

Lapham,  P.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  New  Hamp- 
ton,  Iowa. 

LaPoe,  James  L.,  Supvg.  Prin.,  Room  410, 
Nat.  Deposit  Bank  Bldg.,  South  Browns- 
ville,  Pa. 

Laramy,  Robert  Edward,  B.  A.  '96.  M,  A. 
'99,  Lehigh;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg., 
Altoona,    Pa.,    since    1922. 

Largent,  Samuel  D.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  908 
Third  Ave.,  N.,  Great  Falls,  Mont,  since 
1891. 

LaRowe,  Eugene,  A.  B.  '96,  A.  M.,  '98, 
Univ.  of  Mich.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Maywood, 
111.,    since    1913. 

Lasher,  Norman  J.,  A.  B.  '20,  Marion  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  405  So.  C,  Gas  City,  Ind., 
since   1918. 

Latham,  Rowland  H.,  B.  A.  '03,  M.  A.  '03 
Univ.  of  Virginia;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Masonic 
Temple,  Winston-Salem,   N.  C.,  since  1910. 

Lawrence,  C.  G.,  Pres.  Southern  State  Norm. 
Springfield,    S.    Dak. 

Layde,  J.   B.,   Prin.,   W.    De  Pere,  Wis. 

Leach,  G.  Sidney,  B.  A.  '03,  LL.  B.  '05, 
Yale;  M.  A.  '21,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia 
Univ. ;  Supervising  Prin.,  5  Iona  PI.,  Glen 
Rock,    N.   J.,   since   1918. 

Leavenworth,  Philip  R.,  B.  A.  '92  Yale; 
Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Castleton,  Vt.,  since 
1912. 

Leavitt,  Frank  M.,  Asso.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  714 
Fulton   Bldg.,    Pittsburgh,   Pa. 

LeClair,  Mabel,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  King- 
man,  Ariz. 

Lederle,  E.  J.,  A.  B.  '12,  Mich.;  Co.  Com. 
of    Sch.,    Pontiac,    Mich.,    since    1923. 

Lee,  Charles  A.,  B.  S.  '17,  Mo.  Univ.;  State 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Jefferson  City,  Mo.,  since 
1922. 


398 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Lee,  Glenn  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  West  Engle- 
wood,    N.    J. 

Lee,  H.  D.,  Supt.  Training  Sch.,  No.  Mich. 
Normal,    Marquette,    Mich. 

Leffel,  James  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  801  E. 
Main    St.,    Warsaw,     Ind. 

Lefler,    Millard    C,    B.    A.  'n,    Peru    State 

Tchrs.    Col.;    M.    A.    '16,  Nebr. ;    Supt.    of 

Sch.,    15th    and    N    Sts.,  Lincoln,    Nebr., 
since   1920. 

Lehman,  Ezra,  Prin.  State  Norm.  Sch., 
Shippensburg,  Pa. 

Lehn,  Homer  M.  B.,  A.  B.  '08,  Lebanon 
Valley  Col.;  A.  M.  '22,  Grove  City  Col.; 
Prin.  of  Sch.,  Grove  City,  Pa.,  since  1913. 

Lemmel,  W.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  300  Maple 
St.,    New   London,   Iowa. 

Lemon,  J.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  422  Maple  Ave., 
Blue  Island,   111. 

Leonard,  A.  L.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hunting- 
ton,  Utah. 

Leonard,  Nahum,  Diploma  '02,  Bridge- 
water,  Mass.,  Normal  Sch.;  S.  B.  '05, 
A.  M.  'n,  Harvard;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  15 
Pleasant  St.,  North  Andover,  Mass.,  since 
1921. 

Letts,  George  L.,  B.  S.  *io,  Tri  State  Col.; 
Ph.  B.  '17,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Supt.  of 
Sth.,  126  Clara  Place,  Elmhurst,  111., 
since   1924. 

Le  Vitt,  Clarence  H.,  B.  S.  '11,  A.  M.  '12, 
Tchrs.  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Savanna,  111., 
since   19 14. 

Lewis,  E.  E.,  A.  B.  '06,  A.  M.  '07,  Stanford; 
Ph.  D.  '19,  Columbia;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  519 
Thomson  St.,   Flint,   Mich.,  since   1923. 

Lewis,  Evan  J.,  A.  B.,  '04,  Olivet  Col. ; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Carbondale,  Pa.,  since  1920. 

Lewis,  R.  F.,  A.  B.  '15,  Univ.  of  Wis.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Reedsburg, 
Wis.,    since    1921. 

Lewis,  R.  I.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Shelby,  Ohio. 

Lewton,   W.   W.,    Supt.    of   Sch.,   Cicero,    111. 

Libby,  Herschel  S.,  State  Bd.  of  Ed.,  Cole- 
chester,   Conn. 

Libby,  R.  J.,  Agent  for  Rural  Ed.,  State 
Dept.  of  Ed.,  Augusta,  Maine. 

Light,  N.,  Searle,  B.  A.  '08,  Yale;  Dir. 
Rural  Ed.,  State  Bd.  of  Ed.,  Hartford, 
Conn.,   since    1915. 

Light,  U.  L.,  B.  S.  'oo,  Ohio  Northern; 
Ph.  B.,  '12,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  521  N.  5th  St.,  Barberton,  O.,  since 
1913- 

Lindsey,  John  Clark,  B.  A.  'ig,  Univ.  of 
S.  D. ;  M.  A.  '23,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,   Mitchell,  S.   D.,  since  1918. 

Lippittj  Walter  O.,  B.  S.  '03,  Carleton  Col.; 
M.  A.  '11,  State  Univ.  of  Minn.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  821  S.  Court  St.,  Fergus  Falls,  Minn., 
since    1918. 

Liston,  V.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Neodesha, 
Kans. 

Littel,  C.  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Centralia,  Wash. 


Llewelyn,  Edgar  Julius,  A.  B.  '07,  Earlham 
Col.;  A.  M.  '10,  Ind.  Univ.;  '10,  '13, 
Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  Box  428,  Newcastle,  Ind.,  since  1917. 

Locke,  David  C,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Beaver, 
Pa. 

Locke,  Offutt  Hunter,  B.  S.  '20,  Grove  City 
Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  404  Highland  Ave., 
Woodlawn,   Pa.,  since   1910. 

Lockhart,  Albert  V.,  A.  B.  '15,  Mo.  Wes- 
leyan  Col.;  A.  M.  '17,  Northwestern  Univ.; 
Supt.    of    Sch.,    Lockport,    111.,    since    1922. 

Lockhart,  John  C.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court 
House,    Raleigh,    N.    C. 

Lockwood,  Frank  C,  Dean  Univ.  of  Ariz., 
Tucson,    Ariz. 

Logan,  Anna  E..  M.  A..  '06,  Miami  Univ.; 
Asst.  Sunt,  of  Sch.,  Denton  Bldg.,  Cin- 
cinnati,   Ohio,    since    1915. 

Loofan,  T^ck  M..  A.  B.  '15,  Drake;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Eagle  Grove,  la.,  since 
1922. 

Lombard.  J.  E.,  B.  S.  '02,  M.  E.  '94,  Tu- 
lane;  Librarian,  State  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Rev- 
mond  Bldg.,  Baton  Rouge,  La.,  since  1918. 

Long,  P.  J.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Jackson, 
N.    C. 

Longanecker,  F.  M.,  B.  A.  '99,  Hiram  Col.; 
M.  A.  '04,  Univ.  of  Mich.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Box    103,    Racine,    Wis.,    since    1918. 

Longbotham.  Gilmore  Thomas,  Co.  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Court  House,  Janesville,  Wis., 
since   1923. 

Longman,  Marion  Walter,  A.  B.  -'io,  Albion 
Col.;  A.  M.  *n,  Univ.  of  Mich.;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Muskegon,    Mich.,    since    1921. 

Longsdorf,  A.  J.  B.,  B.  '12,  Wooster  Col.; 
A.  M.  '21,  Columia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
201  W.  Broadway,  No.  Baltimore,  Ohio, 
since   1918. 

Loomis,  G.  F.,  A.  B.  'gt5,  A.  M.  '01,  Beloit 
Col.:  Supt.  of  Sch.,  166  Sheridan  Road, 
Kenosha,    Wis.,    since    1921. 

Loomis,  Kenneth  H.,  A.  B.  '20,  Univ.  of 
Nebr. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  28,  Odell,  Nebr., 
since   1924. 

Loomis,  Nellie  M.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  113 
7th  St.,  S.  E.,  Watertown,  S.  D.,  since 
1923. 

Loper,  John  D.,  M.  A.  '15,  Univ.  of  Ariz., 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  331  No.  First  Ave.,  Phoe- 
nix, Arizona,   since   igog. 

Lord,  Arthur  B.,  State  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Bos- 
ton,   Mass. 

Lord,  Livingston  C,  LL.  D.  '04,  Univ.  of 
111.;  A.  M.  '12,  Harvard;  Pres.  Eastern 
111.  State  Teachers  Col.,  Charleston,  111., 
since   i8g8. 

Lovett,  A.  J.,  A.  B.  '79,  Northwestern; 
A.  M.  '80,  McKendree;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  300 
So.    Main,    Blackwell,    Okla.,    since   1908. 

Lowe,  Harold  T.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O.  Box 
A.,    Hope    Valley,    R.    I. 

Lowery,  John  Glenn,  Dean  Dept.  of  Ed., 
Muskingum  Col.,    New  Concord,   Ohio. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


399 


Lowrey,  Harvey  H.,  M.  A.  '20,  Univ.  of 
Mich.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Springwell,  31st 
Sta.,     Detroit,     Mich.,    since    1922. 

Lowrie,  Walter  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Rock 
River,   Wyo. 

Lowry,  Charles  Doak,  B.  S.  '08,  A.  M.  '13, 
Northwestern  Univ. ;  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
1643  Touhy  Ave.,  Chicago,  111.,  since  1900. 

Lowry,  Harry  H.,  A.  B.  '12,  Bates  Col.; 
A.  M.  '14,  Brown  Univ.;  Ed.  M.  '22,  Har- 
vard; Supt.  of  Sch.,  Waltham,  Mass., 
since    1924. 

Lowther,  L.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Emporia, 
Kans. 

Loy,  W.  M.,  Ph.  B.  '14,  Franklin  &  Mar- 
shall; A.  M.  '22,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,   Gibson   City,  111..,   since   1922. 

Luckey,  G.  W.  A.,  Specialist  Foreign  Ed. 
Systems,  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Ed.,  Washington, 
D.   C. 

Lull,  Herbert  Warren,  A.  B.  '74/  Harvard; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  Hall,  Newport,  R.  I., 
since   1900. 

Lumbard,  John  W.,  B.  A.  '96,  Amherst  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  8  Lenox  Ave.,  White  Plains, 
N.   Y.,  since  1912. 

Lund,  John,  A.  B.  '13,  Clark  U. ;  M.  A. 
'14,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  153 
So.  Main  St.,  Wallingford,  Conn.,  since 
1923. 

Lutes,  Clyde  M.,  B.  A.  '20,  State  Univ.  of 
la. ;  Supt.  of  Con.  Sch.,  Searsboro,  la., 
since   1923. 

Lutes,  O.  S.,  M.  A.,  State  Univ.  of  la.;  Re- 
search Asst.  State  Univ.  of  la.,  924  E. 
Wash.,    Iowa   City,   la.,   since   1924. 

Lyman,  Warren,  B.,  Ph.  B.  '06,  Yale;  Supt. 
of  Union  Sch.,  36  Hayden  Rowe,  Hop- 
kinton,    Mass.,   since    1917. 

Lynch,  C.  P.,  A.  B.  '86,  A.  M.  '91,  Ph.  D. 
'94,  Allegheny  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1289 
Andrews  Ave.,  Lakewood,  Ohio,  since 
1911. 

Lynch,  H.  M.,  A.  B.  '20,  Elon  Col.,  N.  C. ; 
Prin.    H.    S.,    Townsville,    N.    C. 

Lynch,  Wilbur  H.,  A.  B.  '99,  Harvard; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  41  Division  St.,  Amster- 
dam,  N.   Y.,   since   1922. 

Lyon,  Elmer  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Covington, 
La. 

Lyon,  Hubert  Calloway,  B.  S.  '24,  Poto- 
mac Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hearne,  Tex., 
since   1921. 

McAlister,  Cloyd  N.,  Ph.  D.  '00,  Yale; 
Dean  Normal  Sch.,  Berea  Col.,  Berea, 
Ky.,   since   1913. 

McAlister,    R.    D.,   B.   A.   '17,   Univ.   of   Me.; 
M.   A.    Columbia;    Supvg.   Agt.,    State    Bd. 
of    Ed.,    Box    492,    Putnam,     Conn.,    since' 
1922. 

McAlpine,  C.  V.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  344  E. 
Washington    St.,    Marseilles,    111. 

McAndrew,  William,  A.  B.  '86,  Univ.  of 
Mich.;  Supt  of  Sch.,  232  E.  Pearson  St., 
Chicago,  111.,  since  1924,  Pres.  Dept.  of 
Superintendence,    1924. 


McBee,  Mary  V.,  172  Rutledge  Ave., 
Charleston,    S.    C. 

McCallum,  A.  N.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  101  E. 
9th   St.,   Austin,   Tex. 

McCann,  Josiah  S.,  A.  B.  '00,  Bates;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Orange,    Mass.,   since    1919. 

McCartney,  Livingstone,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Han- 
nibal,   Mo.,    since    1909. 

McCleary,  Thomas  Galbraith,  A.  B.  '03, 
Univ.  of  Chicago;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  630  Lil- 
lie    Ave.,    Braddock,    Pa.,    since    1920. 

McClelland,  Donald  W.,  A.  B.  '11,  Univ. 
of  Vt. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  819  Main  St.,  Ben- 
nington,  Vt.,    since   1919. 

McClinton,  J.  W.,  A.  B.  '03,  N.  W. ;  M.  A. 
'18,  Columbia;  Dir.  Better  Sch.  League, 
53  W.  Jackson  Blvd.,  Chicago,  111.,  since 
1924- 

McClure,  Worth,  A.  B.  '08,  Simpson  Col.; 
A.  M.  '20,  Univ.  of  Wash.;  Asst.  to  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  840  Central  Bldg.,  Seattle,  Wash., 
since   1923. 

McCollom,  W.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Union, 
Okla. 

McComis,  Samuel  Jay,  B.  L.  '05,  Berea 
Col.;  LL.  B.  '10,  Lincoln- Jefferson  Univ.; 
A.  M.  '17,  Univ.  of  111.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Venice,  111.,  since  1918. 

McCommons,  J.  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1327  Kans. 
Ave.,  Superior,  Nebr. 

McConnell,  J.  M.,  State  Com.  of  Ed.,  State 
Capitol,    St.    Paul,    Minn. 

McConnell,  John  Preston,  B.  A.  '90,  M.  A. 
'94,  Milligan  Col.;  Ph.D.  '04,  Univ.  of 
Va. ;  Pres.  State  Tchrs.  Col.,  East  Rad- 
ford,  Va.,   since  1911. 

McCooly,  Margaret  J.,  Assoc.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
500    Park   Ave.,    New    York,    N.    Y. 

McCord,  George  E.,  A.  B.  '01,  A.  M.  '04, 
Wittenburg  Col. ;  A.  M.  '22,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1533  Limestone  St., 
Springfield,   Ohio,   since    1920. 

McCord,  Marvin  O.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wash- 
ington,   Ga. 

McCorkle,  Charles  E.,  Ph.  B.  '09,  Ped.  D. 
'18,  Ohio  Univ.;  A.  M.  '14,  Clark  Univ.; 
A.  M.  '17,  Harvard  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Kenmore,    Ohio,    since    1919. 

McCormick,  B.  E.,  A.  B.  '04,  Univ.  of 
Wis., ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  427  So.  14th  St., 
LaCrosse,    Wis.,    since    19 16. 

McCormick,  F.  S.,  A.  B.  '19,  Tri  State  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,   Huron,   Ohio,   since  1923. 

McCoy,  O.  R.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Newmarket, 
N.    H. 

McCready,  B.  V.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lafayette, 
Colo. 

McCrory,  James  L.,  A.  B.  'n,  Tarkio  Col.; 
A.  M.  '17  State  Univ.  of  Iowa;  Asst. 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  610  City  Hall,  Omaha, 
Nebr.,  since   1920. 

McCulloch,  W.  W.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Pon- 
tiac,  111. 

McCullough,  A.  M.,  A.  B.  '18,  Colo.  State 
Tchrs.  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  108  E.  Chip- 
pewa  St.,    Paola,    Kans.,   since    1922. 


400 


Department  of  Superintendence 


McDonald,  Alexander,  B.  L.  '13,  Detroit 
Col.  of  Law;  A.  B.  '15,  Univ.  of  Mich.; 
B.  Pd.  '08,  Mich.  State  Normal  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  25  W.  South  Dearborn  Ave., 
River    Rouge,     Mich.,    since    1909. 

McDonald,  J.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Kemmerer, 
Wyo. 

McDougall,  R.  S.,  Central  State  Norm. 
Sch.,   Lock   Haven,    Pa. 

McDowell,  Samuel  Kline,  Diploma  '06,  111. 
State  Normal  Univ. ;  Diploma  B.  S.  '09, 
Tri-State  College;  '12  University  of  111.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  410  E.  Monroe  St.,  Bloom- 
ington,    111.,    since    1920. 

McElfish,  R.  C,  A.  B.  '14,  Dickinson;  A.  M. 
'16,  Columbia;  Supv.  Prin.  of  Sch.,  in 
Maple  Ave.,  Edgewood,  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
since  1920. 

McElroy,  Frank  D.,  B.  A.  '06,  Wabash 
Col.;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Akron,  Ohio, 
since   1920. 

McGaughy,  J.  R.,  A.  B.  '12,  M.  A.  '15, 
Park  Col.;  M.  A.  '21,  Ph.  D.  '24,  Co- 
lumbia Univ.;  Asst.  Prof,  of  Ed.,  T.  C, 
Columbia  Univ.,  New  York,  N.  Y.,  since 
1923. 

McGee,  R.  R.,  A.  B.  'n,  A.  M.  '15,  Univ. 
of  Nebr. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Columbus,  Nebr., 
since   1922. 

McGehee,  Edward  G.,  Jr.,  A.  B.  '04,  Hamp- 
den-Sidney  Col.;  B.  S.  '17,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Troy  Ala.,  since 
1921. 

McGilvrey,  John  E.,  Pres.,  Kent  State 
Norm.    Col.,   Kent,   Ohio. 

McGinnis,  Howard  J.,  State  Norm.  Sch., 
West    Liberty,    W.    Va. 

McGinnis,  W.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  10  Cen- 
tennial Ave.,    Revere,    Mass. 

McGuire,    Harry,    B.   S.   '20,   K.   S.   T.    Col.; 

Supt.   of  Sch.,    1023    Marion   St.,    Florence, 
Kans.,  since   1922. 

McHenry,  H.  Scott,  B.  S.  '21,  Univ.  of  Pa.; 
Science  Instr.,  Bloomingdale,  N.  J.,  since 
1923. 

Mcllwaine,  Thos.  J.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Farmville,  Va. 

Mclntire,  Ira  H.,  B.  A.  '06,  Indiana  Univ.; 
M.  A.  '20,  Iowa  Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Box    112,    Green    Bay,   Wis.,    since    1920. 

Mcintosh,  W.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1308  Polk 
St.,   Amarillo,   Tex. 

McKee,  Clarence  A.,  A.  B.  '09,  Univ.  of 
Mo. ;  J.  D.  '20,  Univ.  of  Ariz. ;  A.  M.  '23, 
Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  117, 
Glendale,    Ariz.,    since    1921. 

McKee,  William  P.,  A.  B.  '83,  Wabash  Col. ; 
M.  A.  '97,  Univ.  of  Minn.;  B.  D.  '87, 
Univ.  of  Chicago;  Dean,  The  Frances 
Shimer   Sch.,    Mt.    Carroll,    111.,   since   1897. 

McKenny,  Charles,  A.  M.  '04,  Univ.  of  Wis.; 
LL.  D.  '12,  Olivet  Col.;  Pres.  Mich.  State 
Normal   Col.,   Ypsilanti,   Mich.,   since   1912. 

McKenzie,  F.  A.,  Pres.,  Fisk  Univ.,  Nash- 
ville, Tenn. 

McKenzie,  Ury,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  223  Oak  St., 
Hot  Springs,  Ark. 


McKeown,  Boyd  M.,  Dean,  McMurry  Col., 
Abilene,   Tex. 

McKinney,  H.  T.,  B.  S.  '04,  Valparaiso 
Univ.;  B.  A.  '13,  M.  A.  '15,  Ph.  D.  '20, 
Univ.  of  111.;  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Aurora  Col., 
71    N.   View  St.,  Aurora,   111. 

McKinn-ey,  Rachel,  Columbian  Sch.,  Detroit, 
Mich. 

McLeod,  Beatrice,  B.  S.  '20,  Univ.  of  Ore.; 
M.  A.  '22,  Univ.  of  Wash. ;  State  Dir.  of 
Spec.    Ed.,    Cheyenne,   Wyo.,   since    1923. 

McLure,  John  R.,  B.  S.  'n,  Univ.  of  Ala.; 
M.  A.  '14,  Ph.  D.  '24,  Columbia;  Prof. 
of  Ed.  Admin.,  School  of  Ed.,  Univ.  of 
Ala.,    University,    Ala.,   since    1924. 

McMahan,  C.  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Williams- 
town,  W.   Va. 

McMahon,  R.  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  21  Han- 
cock  St.,    New   London,   Wis. 

McManus,  James  B.,  Supt-  of  Sch.,  748 
Gooding   St.,    La   Salle,    111. 

McMillan,  Jesse  V.,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Oxford, 
Ohio. 

McMullan,  J.  E.,  Ph.  B.  '94,  DePauw  Univ.; 
Ph.  M.  '03,  Syracuse  Univ.;  Ph.  D.  '07, 
Scio  Col.;  Dean  of  Ed.,  City  Col.;  222 
N.  Grove  St.,  Oakland  City,  Ind.,  since 
.1919. 

McMullen,  Lynn  B.,  Pres.  Northern  Ariz. 
Normal    Sch.,    Flagstaff,    Ariz. 

McNabb,  H.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lilbourn, 
Mo. 

McPheron,  R.  L.,  341  W.  Monroe,  Mc- 
Alester,    Okla. 

McProud,  B.  E.,  Dean,  Tchrs.  Col.,  100  E. 
17th,    University    Place,    Nebr. 

McQuilkin,  D.  E.,  A.  B.  '05,  A.  M.  '06, 
West  Va.  Univ.;  A.  M.  '08,  Harvard; 
Supt.    of    Sch.,    Roanoke,    Va.,    since    1918. 

McVay,  Charles  S.,  B.  S.  '10,  Ohio  North- 
ern Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  New  Philadel- 
phia,   Ohio,    since    1922. 

McVay,  F.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Canonsburg, 
Pa. 

McVay,  H.  R.,  B.  Ph.  '90,  D.  Ped.  '15, 
Ohio  Univ. ;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Athens, 
Ohio,  since   1923. 

McWhorter,  L.  N.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2517 
Pleasant   Ave.,    Minneapolis,    Minn. 

MacDougall,  W.  J.  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  West 
Bridgewater,    Mass. 

Macelwane,  Francis  J.,  Supt.  Parochial  Sch., 
2535    Collingwood    Ave.,    Toledo,    Ohio. 

Mackey,  E.  W  ,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Newberry, 
Mich. 

Macpherson,  W.  E.,  Ontario  Col.  of  Ed., 
371    Bloor  St.,  W.,  Toronto,   Ont.,  Canada. 

MacQueen,  Donald  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  El- 
dorado,  Ark. 

MacVean,  Ralph  J.,  B.  S.  '22,  Mich.  Agr. 
Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  223  Jefferson  St., 
Lowell,    Mich.,    since    1922. 

Maddox,  John  J.,  A.  B.  '07,  Yale  Col.;  M. 
A.  '12,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
911  Locust  St.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  since  1921. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


401 


Magnussen,  Amanda,  A.  B.  '17,  Bethany 
Col.;  A.  M.  '23,  Univ.  of  Kans. ;  Hd. 
Dept.  of  Ed.,  Bethany  Col.,  Lindsborg, 
Kans.,    since    1918. 

Mahannah,  F.  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Cedar  Falls, 
Iowa. 

Mahoney,  Lewis  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Moline, 
111. 

Main,  H.  T.,  B.  A.  '20,  Ohio  Wesleyan; 
bupt.  of  Sch.,  174  W.  Lincoln  Ave.,  Dela- 
ware,  Ohio. 

Malcolm,  George  G.,  A.  B.  '06,  Univ.  of 
Mich. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Sault  Ste.  Marie, 
Mich.,   since   igi6. 

Mann,  Sara  C,  511  Englewood  Ave.,  Chi- 
cago,  111. 

Manuel,  H.  T.,  A.  B.  "09,  De  Pauw  Univ.; 
A.  M.  '14,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Ph.  D.  '17, 
Univ.  of  111.;  Dir.  Ed.  Res.,  Western  State 
Col.   of   Colo.,   Gunnison,   Colo.,   since   1917. 

Marie,  Sister  Jeanne,  A.  B.  '17,  Col.  of  St. 
Catherine;  A.  M.  '18,  Univ.  of  Minn.; 
Ph.  D.,  Belgium;  Hd.  Ed.  Dept.,  The 
Col.  of  St.  Catherine,  St.  Paul,  Minn., 
since  1921. 

Markley,  J.  H.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  7534 
Madison    St.,    Kansas   City,    Mo. 

Markley,  R.  L.,  A.  B.  '14,  Col.  of  Emporia; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  High  School,  Douglas,  Wyo., 
since   1922. 

Markman,  Frank  H.,  A.  B.  '11,  McKendree 
Col.;  Prin.  Jersey  Twp.  H.  S.,  Jersey- 
ville,     111.,     since     1921. 

Marks,  Sallie  B.,  A.  B.  '23,  S.  W.  Tchrs. 
Col.,  Weatherford,  Okla. ;  Asst.  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  Box  491,   LaCrosse,  Wis.,  since   1924. 

Marquis,  R.  L.,  No.  Tex.  State  Tchrs.  Col., 
Denton,   Tex. 

Marrs,  S.  M.  N.,  State  Supt.  of  Pub.  Inst., 
Austin,   Tex. 

Marsh,  Edward  O.,  A.  B.  '94,  Univ.  of 
Mich.;  M.  Pd.  '18,  Mich.  State  Normal 
Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Jackson,  Mich.,  since 
1911. 

Marshall,  Farnsworth  G.,  A.  B.  '03,  Bow- 
doin;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Maiden,  Mass.,  since 
1913- 

Marshall,  George  H.,  A.  B.  '17,  Univ.  of 
Kans.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  614  Osage  St., 
Augusta,    Kans.,    since    1917. 

Marston,  R.  B.,  B.  A.  '16,  Randolph  Macon 
Col..;  M.  A.  '24,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Sistersville,  W.  Va.,  since 
1920. 

Martin,  A.  O.,  B.  S.  '19,  Okla.  A.  and  M. 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Vinita,  Okla.,  since 
1924- 

Martin,  C.  F.,  State  Cert.  '12,  by  State 
Bd.  of  Ed.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Owingsville, 
Ky. 

Martin,    C.    I.,    Co.    Supt.   of   Sch.,    Pekin,   111. 

Martin,  Frank  M.,  A.  B.  '05,  Wash,  and 
Lee  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Durham,  N.  C, 
since   1923. 

Martin,  Geo.  E.,  A.  B.  '14,  Nebr.  Univ.; 
A.  M.  '19,  Columbia;  Pres.  State  Tchrs. 
Col.,    Kearney,    Nebr.,    since    1919. 


Martin,  H.  G.,  B.  S.  '08,  Univ.  of  Mo.; 
615  City  Park  Ave.,  New  Orleans,  La., 
since   1920. 

Martin,  John  Eppes,  A.  B.  '11,  M.  A.  '14, 
Wash,  and  Lee  Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Suffolk,    Va.,    since    1917. 

Martin,  M.  J.,  A.  B.  '22,  Albion  Col.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  211  E.  Knight  St.,  Eaton  Rapids, 
Mich.,  since   1924. 

Martin,  Sutton  H.,  B.  A.  '95,  Univ.  of 
Nebr.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Prescott,  Ariz., 
since   1917. 

Martin,  William  H.,  M.  S.  '04,  Franklin 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wilkinsburg,  Pa., 
Since    1922. 

Martin,  W.  P.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  606  Academy, 
Dublin,   Ga. 

Mason,  C.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bank  and 
Charlotte    Sts.,    Norfolk,    Va. 

Mason,   E.   G.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,   Rittman,  Ohio. 

Mason,  M.  Phyllis,  Ph.  B.  '15,  Dickinson; 
Rural  Supvr.,  County  Bldg.,  Wilmington, 
Del.,    since    1923. 

Mason,  Noah  M.,  Dixon  Col. ;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Oglesby,    111.,    since    1908. 

Masterson,  W.  G.,  A.  B.  '15,  A.-  M.  '17, 
Greeley,  Colo.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  201  N. 
15th   St.,    Muskogee,    Okla.,    since    1924. 

Maston,  R.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  600  Elm, 
Martins    Ferry,    Ohio. 

Mathewson,  H.  I.,  '79,  Conn.  State  Normal; 
Supt.    of   Sch.,    Milford,    Conn.,   since    1909. 

Matteson,  I.  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Findlay, 
Ohio,   since    191 7. 

Matthews,  Arthur  J.,  LL.  D.  '17,  Syracuse 
Univ. ;  Pres.  Tempe  Normal  Sch.  of  Ariz., 
Tempe,    Ariz.,    since    1900. 

Matzen,  John  M.,  B.  S.  '08,  Fremont  Col.; 
State  Supt.  of  Pub.  Instr.,  Capitol  Bldg., 
Lincoln,    Nebr.,    since    1920. 

Maue,  August,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  212  Sher- 
man  St.,    Joliet,    111. 

Maurer,  George  C,  Ph.  M.  '90,  Ph.  B.  '93, 
Univ.  of  Wooster;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  323  N. 
Market    St.,    Wooster,    Ohio,    since    igi2. 

Maxson,  C.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Litchfield 
Minn. 

Maxson,  Henry  M.,  A.  B.  '77,  A.  M.  '90, 
Amherst  Col.;  Pd.  D.  '00,  Alfred  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Plainfield,   N.  J.,  since  1892. 

Maxson,  Holly  W.,  B.  A.  '97,  Alfred;  B. 
Pd.  '98,  N.  Y.  State  Normal;  M.  A.  '02, 
Columbia;  Master's  Diploma  for  Supv. 
'02,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supv. 
Prin.  of  Sch.,  West  New  York,  N.  J., 
since   1910. 

May,  Walter  M.,  A.  B.  '05,  A.  M.  '24,  Dart- 
mouth; Deputy  Comm.  of  Ed.,  State  House 
Annex,    Concord,    N.    H.,   since    1919. 

Mayberry,  Lawrence  W.,  A.  B.  '01,  Kans. 
Univ.;  A.  B.  '18,  A.  M.  '18,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1548  Park  PL, 
Wichita,    Kans.,    since    1912. 

Maynard,  Milton  M.,  A.  B.  '08,  Univ.  of 
Okla.;  M.  A.  '20,  Univ.  of  111.;  Prof,  of 
Ed.,  Monmouth  Col.,  734  E.  Boston  Ave., 
Monmouth,    111.,    since    1909. 


402 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Mays,  Vernon  G.,  M.  A.  '05,  Univ.  of  Mich.; 
Ph.  B.  '94,  Albion  Col. ;  Prin.  Fergus  Co. 
H.    S.,    Lewistown,    Mont.,    since    1923. 

Mead,  H.  W.,  A.  B.  '01,  Harvard;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    East   Aurora,    N.    Y.,   since   1906. 

Meadows,  John  C,  M.  A.  '21,  Peabody  Col. ; 
Supt.    of   Sch.,    Amory,    Miss. 

Meek,  Charles  S.,  A.  B.  '91,  Univ.  of  Ind. ; 
A.  M.  '08,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Bd.   of   Ed.,   Toledo,   Ohio,   since   1921. 

Meek,  Lois  Hayden,  Am.  Assn.  of  Univ. 
Women,    1634   I    St.,   Washington,    D.    C. 

Meer,  Mary  L.,  B.  S.  '09,  T.  C,  Columbia 
Univ. ;  Supvr.  Prim.  Gr.,  1401  Kaighn 
Ave.,  Camden,   N.  J. 

Melcher,  George,  B.  S.  '89,  M.  S.  '92,  Odessa 
Col.;  A.  B.  'g8,  Drury  Col.;  A.  M.  'ig, 
T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.;  LL.  D.  '23,  Mo. 
Valley  Col.;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Dir.  of 
Res.,  Library  Bldg.,  Kansas  City,  Mo., 
since   1914. 

Melcher,  Wm.,  A.  B.  'n,  A.  M.  '12,  Drury 
Col.;  A.  M.  '16,  Harvard;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
439   S.   Sixth,    Montrose,    Colo.,   since    1918. 

Mendenhall,  H.  M.,  A.  B.  '20,  Univ.  of  Pa.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Upper  Darby,  Pa.,  since 
1917. 

Meredith,  Albert  B.,  A.  B.  '95,  M.  A.  '16, 
LL.  D.  '21,  Wesleyan  Univ.;  L.  H.  D. 
'21,  Upsala  Col.;  Pd.  D.  '16,  Muhlenberg 
Col.;  State  Com.  of  Ed.,  Hartford,  Conn., 
since   1920. 

Merrell,  A.  J.,  A.  B.  '88,  A.  M.  'gi,  Univ. 
of  Rochester;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.,  Geneva, 
N.    Y.,    since    1913. 

Merriam,  Burr  J.,  Diploma  '98,  Oneonta 
Normal  Sch.;  B.  S.  '16,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Framingham,  Mass.,  since 
1922. 

Merrick,  K.  C,  A.  B.  '10,  Wheaton  Col.; 
A.  M.  '23,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Morris,    111.,    since    1920. 

Merriman,  Ethel  G.,  Elemn.  Supvr.,  25  Burr 
St.,    West    Hartford,    Conn.,    since    1923. 

Merriman,  Justin,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bluff- 
ton,    Ind. 

Merritt,  Lillian  H.,  210  W.  Embargo,  Rome, 
N.  Y. 

Merwin,  Fannie  S.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Havana,    111. 

Mesner,  F.  D.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bellevue,  Iowa. 

Metzner,  Alice  B.,  B.  S.  '24,  Detroit  Tchrs. 
Col.;  Supvr.  of  Spec.  Ed.,  100  E.  Grand 
River,   Detroit,    Mich.,   since   igi6. 

Meyer,    A.    M.,   Supt.    of  Sch.,    Oxford,    Ind. 

Midkiff,  F.  E.,  Kamehameha  Sch.,  Hono- 
lulu,  T.    H. 

Miley,  Jess  W.,  State  Supt.  of  Sch.,  State 
House,    Topeka,    Kans. 

Miller,  Alexander  W.,  A.  B.  '12,  Harvard; 
A.  M.  '22,  Columbia;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Scotia,    N.    Y.,    since    igi8. 

Miller,  Augustus  G.,  B.  S.  '88,  S.  C.  Mil. 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O.  Box  76,  Way- 
cross,    Ga.,    since    igi2. 


Miller,  Charles  A.,  B.  S.  '11,  M.  S.  '12, 
Susquehanna;  Supvr.  Prin.,  H.  S.,  South 
Brownsville,    Pa.,   since    1923. 

Miller,  C.  F.,  A.  B.  '07,  A.  M.  'og,  Mc- 
Kendree  Col.;  A.  M.  '17,  T.  C,  Columbia 
Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch. ;  Library  Bldg., 
Galesburg,    111.,   since    1921. 

Miller,  Charles  F.,  Ph.  B.  '96,  DePauw 
Univ.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court  House, 
Goshen,   Ind.,  since   ig2i. 

Miller,     Charles    S.,    A.     B.     '13,    Allegheny; 

A.  M.    '15,    Univ.   of   Pittsburgh;    Supt.    of 
Sch.,   Latrobe,   Pa.,   since   igi8. 

Miller,  Edwin  L.,  A.  B.  'go,  A.  -  M.  'gi, 
Univ.  of  Mich. ;  M.  Pd.  '24,  Mich.  State 
Tchrs.  Col.;  Supv.  Prin.  of  H.  S.,  1354 
Broadway,    Detroit,    Mich.,    since    1922. 

Miller,  Emma  R.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  West 
Point,    Nebr.,    since    igo7. 

Miller,  Frank  L.,  B.  A.  '82,  M.  A.  '85,  Ohio 
Wesleyan  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  15410 
Lexington    Ave.,    Harvey,    111.,    since    i8g2. 

Miller,  Fred  B.,  6700  Easton  Ave.,  St. 
Louis,    Mo. 

Miller,  H.  C,  A.  B.  '10,  Lenoir  Col.;  A. 
M.  '13,  Univ.  of  N.  C. ;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Box   466,   Washington,    N.    C,   since    ig23. 

Miller,    Harley    H.,    B.    S.    '16,    O.    S.    Univ.; 

B.  S.    '20,    O.    N.    Univ.;     Supt.    of    Sch., 
Tiro,    Ohio,    since    1921. 

Miller,  James  C,  Prof,  of  Ed.,  P.  O.  Box 
224,   Bloomington,   Ind. 

Miller,  Walter  E.,  B.  A.  '87,  Ohio  Wesleyan 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  H.  S.,  Knox- 
ville,    Tenn.,    since    1911. 

Mills,  C.  S.,  State  Sch.  Supvg.  Agt.,  58  E. 
Main   St.,    Plainville,    Conn. 

Mills,  W.  R.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Louisburg, 
N.  C. 

Milne,  John,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  804  Park  Ave., 
Albuquerque,    N.    Mex. 

Miner,  W.  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Farmington, 
Maine. 

Minnich,  Harvey  C,  A.  M.  '08,  Ohio  Wes- 
leyan; LL.  D.  '12,  Univ.  of  Vt. ;  Dean 
Tchrs.  Col.,  Miami  Univ.,  Oxford,  Ohio, 
since    1903. 

Misenar,  O.  M.,  Ph.  B.  '13,  Alma  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  521  Sixth  St.,  St.  Clair, 
Mich.,    since    1918. 

Mitchell,  Clovis  W.,  B.  S.  '08,  R.  I.  State 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Putnam  Ave.,  Green- 
ville,   R.    I.,    since    19 18. 

Mitchell,  Irving  C,  B.  S.  '13,  R.  I.  State 
Col.;  A.  M.  '20,  Brown;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Valley   Falls,    R.    I.,   since    igi8. 

Mitchell,  J.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1103  Sheridan, 
Holdrege,    Nebr. 

Mitchell,  S.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Benton 
Harbor,   Mich. 

Mniece,  Leonard  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Han- 
cock,   Mich. 

Moehlman,  Arthur  B.,  A.  B.  '12,  A.  M.  '21, 
Ph.  D.  '23,  Univ.  of  Mich.;  Prof,  of 
Admin,  and  Supv.,  Sch.  of  Ed.  Univ.  of 
Mich.,    Ann    Arbor,     Mich.,    since    ig23. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


403 


Mohn,  A.  W.,  Pres.  Louisburg  Col.,  Louis- 
burg,   N.   C. 

Mohr,  Lloyd  C,  B.  S.  '16,  Adrian  Col.; 
M.  A.  '22,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  South  Haven,  Mich.,  since 
1920. 

Molloy,  Hugh  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  16  Rutland 
St.,    Lowell,    Mass. 

Montgomery,  A.  D.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Sullivan, 
Ind. 

Montgomery,  J.  J.,  B.  S.  '15,  Milton  Univ.; 
A.  B.  '17,  Univ.  of  Minn.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Jacksonville,    Tex.,   since    1924. 

Montgomery,  L.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box 
638,   Cambria,  Wis. 

Montgomery,  T.  T.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1316 
S.    8th    St.,    Chickasha,    Okla. 

Montoya,  A.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  216  N. 
High   St.,   Albuquerque,   N.    M. 

Moody,  A.  E.,  A.  B.  '07,  A.  M.  '13,  Ohio 
State  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  758  Washing- 
ton   St.,    Bedford,    Ohio,    since    1918. 

Moody,  Chester  A.,  A.  B.  '06,  Syracuse 
Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Arlington,  Mass., 
since   1922. 

Moody,  V.  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Waterford, 
Conn. 

Moon,  Ward  Clinton,  A.  B.  '05,  Amherst; 
Pd.  M.  'ro,  N.  Y.  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Poughkeepsie,    N.   Y.,    since    1919. 

Moore,  A.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Oelwein, 
Iowa. 

Moore,  E.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  316  N.  Main, 
Eaton    Rapids,     Mich. 

Moore,  George  O.,  A.  B.  '04  A.  M.  '09, 
Syracuse  Univ. ;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Li- 
brary  Bldg.,    Erie,    Pa.,   since    1922. 

Moore,  Herbert  McComb,  B.  A.  '96,  Lake 
Forest  Col.;  LL.  D.  '21,  Pittsburgh  Univ.; 
Pres.  Lake  Forest  Col.,  Lake  Forest,  111., 
since    1920. 

Moore,  James  Alexander,  B.  P.  '94,  Southern 
Univ.;  LL.  D.  '24,  Univ.  of  Ala.;  Co. 
Supt.    of   Sch.,    Jasper,    Ala.,    since    1920. 

Moore,  James  G.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  360  7th 
Ave.    So.,    Fargo,    N.    D. 

Moore,  Marion  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lawrence- 
ville,   111. 

Moore,  Millard  C,  A.  B.  '07,  Colby;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  98  Main  St.,  Ashfield,  Mass., 
since  1920. 

Moore,  M.  E.,  A.  B.  '01,  Southern  Nor. 
Univ.  Tenn. ;  A.  M.  '14,  Univ.  of  Kans. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Beaumont,  Texas,  since 
1919. 

Moore,  Milton  H.,  A.  B.  '21,  Tex.  Christian 
Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  921  Jennings  Ave., 
Fort.    Worth,    Tex.,    since    1915. 

Moore,  Roy  L.,  A.  B.  '05,  Eureka  Col.; 
State  H.  S.  Supvr.,  901  W.  South  Grand 
Ave.,    Springfield,    111.,   since   1923. 

Morelock,  Oliver  J.,  A.  B.  '92,  A.  M.  '95, 
Franklin  and  Marshall  Col.;  A.  M.  '21, 
Columbia  Univ.;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Maple- 
wood,   N.   J. 


Morgan,  Lewis  V.,  A.  B.  '13,  Wheaton  Col.; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court  House,  Wheaton, 
111.,  since  1921. 

Morgan,  Royal  T.,  Jr.,  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Wheaton,  111. 

Morgan,  Walter  P.,  Diploma  '95,  Ind.  State 
Normal;  A.  B.  '00,  Ind.  Univ.;  Ph.  M. 
'09,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Pres.  Western  111. 
State  Teachers  Col.,  Macomb,  111.,  since 
1912. 

Morris,  Charles  A.,  B.  S.  '05,  Rutgers  Col.; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court  House,  Toms 
River,    N.    J.,    since    1906. 

Morris,  Frank  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Manchester, 
N.   H. 

Morris,  George,  B.  S.  '89,  Rutgers  Col.; 
A.  M.  '01,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
161  Washington  St.,  Bloomfield,  N.  J., 
since   1904. 

Morris,  Ida  B.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  St.  Mary's, 
W.  Va. 

Morris,    M.    G.,    Supvg.    Prin.,    Natrona,   Pa. 

Morrison,  Fred  Wilson,  A.  B.,  A.  M.  '13, 
Univ.  of  N.  C. ;  A.  M.  '23,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Asso.  Prof,  of  Ed.,  N.  C.  Col.  for 
Women,    Greensboro,    N.    C,   since    1924. 

Morrison,  J.  Cayce,  A.  B.  '12,  Valparaiso, 
Univ.;  M.  A.  '16,  Ph.  D.  '22.  Columbia 
Univ.;  Prof,  of  Sch.  Admin.,  Dept.  Sch. 
Admin.,  Ohio  State  Univ.,  Columbus, 
Ohio,   since   1923. 

Morse,  Herbert  N.,  Bus.  Mgr.,  State  Dept. 
of  Pub.  Instr.,  901  Berkeley  Ave.,  Tren- 
ton,   N.   J.,   since    1898. 

Morse,  Orson  S.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  12  E. 
First   St.,    Fond   Du   Lac,   Wis. 

Mort,  Paul  R.,  Ph.  D.  '24,  Columbia;  Asst. 
Prof,  of  Ed.,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.; 
New   York,    N.    Y.   since    1924. 

Morton,  H.  D.,  Pres.  Mountain  Home  Col. ; 
Mountain   Home,  Ark. 

Morton.  Orion  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch..  177  Pros- 
pect  St.,    Northampton,    Mass.,   since    1923. 

Morton,    William    Henry,    A.  B.    '09,    York 

Col. ;    A.    M.    '12,    Univ.    of  Nebr. ;    A.    M. 

'23,    Columbia   Univ.;    Supt.  of   Sch.,    Beat- 
rice,   Nebr.,    since    1922. 

Moseley,  Clark  C,  Diploma  '07,  State  Nor- 
mal Col.;  A.  B.  '11,  Univ.  Ala.;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Dothan,   Ala.,   since    1922. 

Mosher,   Charles  L.,  Ph.   B.   '99,   Ph.    M.   '02, 

Hamilton,      Col.;  Supt.      of     Sch.,      High 

School,     Saratoga  Springs,     N.     Y.,     since 
1914. 

Mott,  T.  A.,  A.  M.  '98,  Earlham  Col.;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Seymour,   Ind.,   since   1913. 

Moyers,  A.  Edison,  A.  B.  '12,  Tabor  Col.; 
M.  S.  '22,  la.  State  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Sidney,   Iowa. 

Mueller,  Rudolph  C,  B.  A.  '13,  Fargo  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  7449  Warren  Ave.,  Forest 
Park,    111.,    since    1922. 

Muench,  J.  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Mountain 
Iron,   Minn. 

Mugan,  Mary  A.  S.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Sch.    Admin.    Offices,    Fall    River,    Mass. 


404 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Muir,  James  N.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  132  East 
Broad    St.,    Bethlehem,    Pa. 

Muma,  James  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Stephenson, 
Mich. 

Munch,  H.  F.,  B.  S.  '04,  Adrian  Col.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  521  N.  Main  St.,  Monmouth,  111., 
since   1922. 

Munson,  Irving,  A.  B.  '13,  Augustana  Col.; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,    Momence,   111.,   since   1920. 

Munson,  J.  M.,  Ph.  B.  '11,  Univ.  of  Chicago; 
M.  Pd.  '13,  Mich.  State  Normal  Col.; 
Pres.  No.  State  Normal  Sch.,  Marquette, 
Mich.,  since  1923. 

Murphey,  D.  R.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1708  Wilmer 
Ave.,    Anniston,    Ala. 

Murphy,  Edward  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2  Harri- 
son  Ave.,   Jersey   City,    N.   J. 

Murphy,  E.  P.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  440, 
Gadsden,  Ala. 

Murphy,  Joseph  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  613, 
Hurley,  Wis. 

Murphy,  J.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  224  N.  Taylor 
St.,    El    Dorado,    Kans. 

Murphy,    S.    S.,    Supt.   of   Sch.,    Mobile,    Ala. 

Musselman,  Fren,  A.  B.  '10,  Ind.  Univ.; 
A.  M.  '16,  Columbia;  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Kent 
State  Normal  Col.;  226  Lincoln  St.,  Kent, 
Ohio,    since    1924. 

Myers,  Rachel,  A.  B.  '15,  Univ.  of  111.;  A. 
M.  '22,  Columbia  Univ.;  Dean  of  Women, 
Concord  State  Col.;  Athens,  W.  Va.,  since 
1922. 

Myers,  William  Andrew,  A.  B.  '96,  A.  M. 
'gg,  Ind.  Univ. ;  Mgr.,  Ed.  Bureau,  561 
Highland    Drive,    Indianapolis,    Ind. 

Mygrant  F.  V.,  B.  S.  'n  Ohio  State  U. ; 
West  Unity,   Ohio,   since   igi3. 

Nagel,  Mrs.  Blanche  A.,  Asst.  Supt.,  State 
Dept.,    of    Ed.,    Box    674,    Olympia,    Wash. 

Nants,  J.  S.,  3810  Shaw  Ave.,  St.  Louis. 
Mo. 

Nash,  C.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  41  South  Ave., 
No.    St.    Paul,    Minn. 

Nash,  M.  A.,  A.  B.  '19,  Okla.  Univ.;  LL. 
D.  '22,  Okla.  Bap.  Univ.;  State  Supt.  of 
Pub.  Instr.,  Oklahoma  City,  Okla.,  since 
1922. 

Naylor,  A.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Port  Jervis, 
N.  Y. 

Neale,  M.  G.,  Dean  Sch.  of  Ed.,  Univ.  of 
Mo.,    Columbia,    Mo. 

Neff,  Charles  T.,  Jr.,  A.  B.  '21,  W.  Va., 
Univ.;  Supt.  Independent  Dist.  Sch.,  104 
Hampshire  St.,  Piedmont,  W.  Va.,  since 
1922. 

Neff,  H.  D.,  B.  A.  '24,  E.  T.  S.  T.  C. ; 
Supt.    of   Sch.,    Haskell,    Tex. 

Neighbours,  Owen  J.,  A.  B.  '05,  Western 
Maryland  Col.;  Ph.  M.  '10,  Univ.  of  Chi- 
cago; Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wabash,  Ind.,  since 
1916. 

Nelson,  A.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1406  N  St., 
Auburn,    Nebr. 


Nelson,  Burton  E.,  B.  S.  '91,  M.  S.  '95, 
Western  Normal  Col.;  Pres.  The  Stout 
Inst.,    Menomonie,    Wis.,    since    1923. 

Nelson,  Thelma,  Dept.  State  Supt.  of  Pub. 
Inst.,    State    House,    Des    Moines,    Iowa. 

Neulen,  Lester  N.,  M.  A.  '23,  Columbia 
Univ.;  B.  A.  '16,  St.  Olaf  Col.;  49  Clare- 
mont  Ave.,    New  York,    N.    Y. 

Neveln,  S.  T.,  A.  B.  '16,  Iowa  State  Tchrs. 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Austin,  Minn.,  since 
1921. 

Nevelyn,  Chas.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  420  Union, 
Iowa   Falls,  Iowa. 

Neverman,  Paul  F.,  1315  Carney  Blvd., 
Marinette,    Wis.,    since    1920. 

Neville,  Delta  M.,  A.  B.  '21,  Mo.  Valley 
Col.;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Marshall,  Mo., 
since   1922. 

Newell,  William  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1093 
Central  Ave.,  Pawtucket,  R.  I.,  since  ig22. 

Newlon,  Jesse  H.,  A.  B.  '07,  Ind.  Univ.; 
A.  M.  '14,  Columbia  Univ.;  LL.  D.  '22, 
Denver  Univ.;  Pres.  Nat.  Ed.  Assn.,  ig24, 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  414  14th  St.,  Denver,  Colo., 
since   1920. 

Newlun,  Chester,  Ph.  B.  '24,  U.  of  Wis.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  W.  D.  Purdy  Jr.  H.  S., 
Marshallfield,   Wis.,    since   19 19. 

Newman,  R.  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  High  Sch. 
Bldg.,    Oskaloosa,    Iowa. 

Newton,  J.  C,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Shelby, 
N.   C. 

Newton,  J.  H.,  A.  B.  '96,  Polytech.,  Ft. 
Worth,  Tex.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  287  E.  First 
St.,    Cooper,    Tex.,    since    1907. 

Newton,  Robert  M.,  L.  I.  '15,  B.  S.  '16,  Col. 
of  Wm.  and  Mary;  Div.  Supt.,  Sch.,  Court 
House,    Hampton,    Va.,   since    1923. 

Nichols,    F.    H.,    Com.    of   Sch.,    Flint,    Mich. 

Nichols,  F.  W.,  Supt  of  Sch.,  Dist.  76,  504 
Lee   St.,    Evanston,    111. 

Nickerson,  Fred  H.,  A.  B.  '86,  A.  M.  '89, 
Bates;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  25  Edgemere  Rd., 
Quincy,   Mass.,   since   1920. 

Nickols,  D.  F.,  B.  S.  '18,  Lincoln  Col.; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Lincoln,   111.,  since   1919. 

Nielsen,   P.   M.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Tooele,   Utah. 

Niles,  Caleb  H.,  B.  S.  '14,  Dartmouth  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  6  South  St.,  Lebanon,  N.  H., 
since   1922. 

Nisbet,  S.  S.,  A.  B.  'ig,  Alma  Col.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  H.  S.,  Fremont,  Mich.,  since  ig23. 

Noble,   E.    M.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Denton,   Md. 

Nolte,    K.    F.,    B.    A.    '12,    la.    State    Tchrs. 
Col. ;     Supt.    of    Cons.    Sch.,    Hansell,    la.,  , 
since  1919. 

Noonan,  Joseph  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  125  W. 
Centre  St.,   Mahonoy   City,   Pa. 

Noonan,  Margaret  E.,  Prof,  of  Elem.  Ed., 
N.    Y.    U. ;    New   York,    N.    Y. 

Norby,  B.  O.,  Supt.  Con.  Sch.,  Eyota,  Minn. 

Norton,  John  K.,  M.  A.  '17,  Stanford  Univ.; 
Dir.  of  Research,  N.  E}.  A.,  1201  Sixteenth 
St.,  N.  W.,  Washington,  D.   C.,  since  ig22. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


405 


Norton,  Warren  P.,  A.  B.  '15,  Brown  Univ.; 

A.   M.   '23,   T.    C.  Columbia  Univ.;    Supvg. 

Prin.,     24     Ridge  Ave.,     Sharpsville,     Pa., 
since   1922. 

Notley,  Llwellyn,  Supt.  of  Sen.,  Teague, 
Texas. 

Noyes,  E.  C,  A.  B.  '98,  Yale;  A.  M.  '00, 
Harvard;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Allegheny 
Co.,  610  Shady  Ave.,  Mt.  Lebanon,  So. 
Hills   Sta.,    Pittsburgh,    Pa. 

Noyes,  William  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Tower, 
Minn. 

Nugent,  M.  E.,  B.  A.  '10,  Carleton  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Larimore,  N.  D.,  since  1919. 

Nusbaum,  Louis,  Asso.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  19th 
St.,   above   Chestnut,    Philadelphia,   Pa. 

O'Banion,  John  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  504  W. 
Knox,  Ennis,  Tex. 

Oberholtzer,  Edison  Ellsworth,  Ph.  B.  '10, 
M.  A.  '15,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  LL.  D.  '21, 
Univ. .  of  Tulsa;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Houston, 
Tex.,   since    1924. 

Oday,  H.  A.,  Ph.  B.  '99,  Syracuse  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Mahanoy  City,  Pa.,  since 
1916. 

O'Dell,    C.   A.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Higbie,    Mo. 

Odenweller,  A.  L.,  Lindenwood  Col.,  St. 
Charles,   Mo. 

Odgers,  H.  E.,  A.  B.  '02,  Dickinson  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Parkersburg,  W.  Va.,  since 
1918. 

Offerman,  Kate  M.,  B.  S.  '20,  Bowling 
Green,  State  Normal;  Primary  Supvr. 
Wood  Co.  Sch.,  Pemberville,  Ohio,  since 
1921. 

Olds,  William  Edgar,  B.  A.  '16,  Univ.  of 
Mich.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  707 
S.    13th    St.,    Escanaba,    Mich.,    since    1919. 

O'Leary,  John,  A.  B.  '10,  Antioch  Col.; 
Supt.    of   Sch.,    Eaton,    Ohio,   since    1910. 

O'Leary,  Wesley  A.,  B.  S.  '95,  Dartmouth 
Col. ;  Asst.  State  Comm.  of  Ed.,  Trenton, 
N.   J.,   since   1918. 

Oliver,  W.  I.,  B.  S.  '16,  Univ.  of  Mo.;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    910   Rogers   St.,    Columbia,    Mo. 

Oliver,  W.  W.,  A.  B.  '23,  Muskingum  Col.; 
Supt.    of   Sch.,    Caldwell,   Ohio. 

Olsen,  Martha,  719  Noyes  St.,  Evanston, 
111. 

O'Neill,  James  E.,  Diploma,  Mich.  North- 
ern Normal;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Baraga,  Mich., 
since   1920. 

Opstad,  Iver  A.,  B.  A.  'n,  Luther  Col.; 
M.  A.  '19,  State  Univ.  of  Iowa;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  530  Jefferson  St.,  Iowa  City,  Iowa, 
since   1920. 

Orem,  Nicholas,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Upper 
Marlboro,    Md. 

Osgerby,  J.  K.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  East  Tawas, 
Mich. 

Ostergaard,  H.,  B.  A.  '14,  la.  State  Tchrs. 
Col.;  M.  A.  '20,  la.  State  Univ.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  506  W.  Walnut,  Bloomfield,  la., 
since    1920. 


Osuna,  J.  J.,  A.  B.  '12,  Penn.  State  Col.; 
A.  M.  '20,  Ph.  D.  '23,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Dir.  of  Tchr.  Tr.,  Univ.  of  Porto  Rico, 
Rio  Piedras,   P.   R.,   since   1922. 

Oswald,  Walter  E.,  A.  B.  'ax,  Goshen  Col., 
Supt.  of  Twp.  Cent.  Sch.,  Burghill,  Ohio 
since   1923. 

Otis,  E.  M.,  Ph.  B.  '03,  Adelbert  W.  R. 
Univ.;  A.  M.  '20,  T.  C,  Columia;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  45  River  St.,  Willoughby,  Ohio, 
since    1909. 

Ousterhout,  Travers,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  St. 
Charles,    Mich. 

Overmyer,  J.  F.,  M.  A.  '24,  Ohio  Northern 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Algona,  Iowa,  since 
1904. 

Overturf,  Jesse  R.,  B.  A.  '20,  Univ.  ot 
Nebr. ;  M.  A.  '23,  Stanford  Univ.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  713  W.  Elm  St.,  Lodi,  Calif., 
since    1923. 

Packer,  P.  C,  Ph.  D.  '23,  T.  C.  Columbia 
Univ.;  M.  A.  'ax,  Univ.  of  Mich. ;  A.  B. 
'18,  Univ.  of  la.;  Dean  Col.  of  Ed.,  Iowa 
City,    la.,    since    1923. 

Page,  A.  R.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.,  White- 
water,   Wis. 

Page,  John  S.,  A.  B.  '22,  M.  A.  '24,  Univ. 
of  Mich.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  602  E.  Grand 
River   Ave.,    Howell,    Mich.,    since    1922. 

Painter,  E.  A.,  A.  B.  '11,  Roanoke  Col.; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Fincastle,  Va.,  since 
1917. 

Painter,  Walter  S.,  A.  M.  '14,  Columbia; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Mt.  Vernon,  Ind.,  since 
I9I.7- 

Palmer,  Francis  E.,  Supt.  of  Iowa  Col.  for 
the    Blind,    Vinton,    Iowa. 

Palmer,  James  J.,  Dir.  of  Tr.,  State  Norm. 
Sch.,    Edinboro,    Pa. 

Palmer,  Luella  A.,  B.  S.  '06,  M.  A.  '15, 
Columbia  Univ.;  Dir.  of  Kndgrtns.,  500 
Park  Ave.,    New  York,    N.    Y.,   since    1921. 

Palmer,  M.  C,  Prin.  Co.  Rural  Norm.,  Co- 
lumbus,   Wis. 

Palmer,  Rufus  H.,  A.  B.  '09,  A.  M.  'xa, 
Univ.  of  Denver;  A.  M.  '24,  T.  C,  Co- 
lumbia Univ. ;  Dir.  of  Elemn.  Ed.,  P.  O. 
Box    896,    Denver,    Colo.,    since    1922. 

Parkinson,  B.  L.,  B.  S.  '09,  Erskine  Col. ; 
M.  A.  '20,  George  Peabody  Col.;  State 
H.  S.  Inspector,  704  Natl.  Loan  and  Ex. 
Bank    Bldg.,    Columbia,    S.    C,    since    1920. 

Parkinson,  William  D.,  A.  B.  '79,  Dart- 
mouth; LL.  B.  '81,  National  Univ.; 
Prin.  Mass.  State  Normal  Sch.,  Fitchburg, 
Mass.,   since   1922. 

Parks,  M.  M.,  Pres.  Ga.  State  Col.  for  Wo- 
men,   Milledgeville,    Ga.,    since    1904. 

Parmelee,  L.  S.,  B.  S.,  A.  M. ;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Munising,    Mich. 

Parratt,  D.  W.,  Supt.  Granite  Dist.,  330  E. 
21st  So.   St.,  Salt  Lake,   Utah. 

Parsons,  A.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  400  N.  Wal- 
nut,   Oklahoma   City,    Okla. 

Partridge,  H.  R.,  A.  B.  '13,  Nebr.  Wesleyan 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Alliance,  Nebr., 
since   1920. 


406 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Pate,  W.  R.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  809  Box,  Butte 
Ave.,    Peru,    Nebr. 

Patrick,  W.  Burton,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S., 
Orange,    N.   J. 

Patt,  Hermann  G.,  A.  B.  '06,  Colgate;  B.  D. 
'10,  Newton;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Manchester, 
Mass.,  since  1923. 

Patterson,  Herbert,  B.  A.  '08,  M.  A.  'n, 
Conn.  Wesleyan  Univ.;  M.  A.  'n,  Ph.  D. 
'13,  Yale  Univ.;  Dean  Sch.  of  Ed.,  Okla- 
homa A.  and  M.  Col.,  Stillwater,  Okla., 
since    1919. 

Patterson,  James  H.,  A.  B.  '14,  W.  Va. 
Univ. ;  A.  M.  '20,  Columbia  Univ.,  Tchrs. 
Col.;  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Thomas,  W.  Va., 
since    1921. 

Patterson,  John  R.,  Ph.  B.  '14,  Wooster  Col.; 
Supt.    of   Sch.,    Bucyrus,    Ohio,   since    1919. 

Patton,  John  S.,  Supt.  of  Parish  Sch.,  Homer, 
La. 

Pauly,  Frank  R.,  Diploma  '14,  Central  Tchrs. 
Col.;  B.  A.  '17,  Univ.  of  Okla.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  300  N.  Main  St.,  Sand  Springs, 
Okla.,    since    1922. 

Payne,  E.  George,  New  York  Univ.,  New 
York,    N.    Y. 

Peacock,  Joseph  Leishman,  A.  B.  '00,  Brown 
Univ. ;  A.  M.  '02,  Harvard  Univ. ;  D.  D. 
'21;  Colby  Col.,  Pres.  Shaw  Univ.,  Ra- 
leigh,   N.   C,   since   1920. 

Pearse,  Carroll  G,  3104  Wells  St.,  Milwau- 
kee,   Wis. 

Pearson,  M.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  709  N.  9th 
St.,   Kansas   City,   Kans. 

Pearson,  Raymond  A.,  Pres.  Iowa  State  Col., 
Ames,   Iowa. 

Pease,  Alvin  F.,  A.  B.  '75,  A.  M.  '78, 
Brown  Univ. ;  Winship  Tchrs.  Agcy.,  6 
Beacon    St.,    Boston,    Mass.,    since    1898. 

Peck,  William  R.,  B.  A.  '16,  M.  A.  '20  Holy 
Cross  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  184  Chestnut 
St.,    Holyoke,    Mass.,    since    1920. 

Peebles,  I.  E.,  LL.  B.  '21,  Univ.  of  Miss.; 
Asst.  State  Supt.  of  Ed.,  Box  252,  Jack- 
son.,   Miss.,    since    1924. 

Peebles,  James  F.,  A.  B.  '16,  B.  Univ.; 
Supt.    of   Sch.,    Marion,    Mass.,    since    1922. 

Peel,  J.  C,  A.  B.  '15,  Elon;  M.  A.  '20, 
N.    C.   Univ.;    Supt.  of  Sch.,   Sarasota,   Fla. 

Peik,  W.  E.,  Col.  of  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Minn., 
Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Peirce,  W.  M.,  Ph.  B.  '99,  111.  Wesleyan 
Univ. ;  Ph.  D.  '03,  Grove  City  Col. ;  Supt. 
of    Sch.,    Ridgeway,    Pa.,    since    1897. 

Pence,  A.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Coshocton, 
Ohio. 

Penley,  F.  J.,  Supvg.  Agt.,  State  Bd.  of  Ed., 
152   Walnut   St.,   Winsted,    Conn. 

Pennell,  Charles  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  65  Con- 
cord,   Holliston,    Mass. 

Pennell,  Mary  E.,  B.  S.  'n,  A.  M.  '18,  T.  C. 
Columbia  Univ.;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  517 
Knickerbocker  PI.,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  since 
1919. 


Perkins,  Charles  N.,  A.  B.  '93,  A.  M.  '96, 
Colby;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  14  Townsend  St., 
Waltham,    Mass.,    since    19 18. 

Perrault,  W.  C,  A.  B.  '08,  La.  State  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  St.  Martinville,  La.,  since 
igig. 

Perrin,  H.  Ambrose,  Diploma  '03,  111.  S.  N. 
Univ.;  Ph.  B.  '12,  M.  A.  '22,  Univ.  of 
Chicago;  M.  A.  '16,  James  Milliken  Univ.; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,  Joliet,   111.,   since   1922. 

Perrott,  C.  F.,  B.  A.  '18,  Iowa  State  Tchrs. 
Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Stuttgart,  Ark.,  since 
1921. 

Perry,  Arthur  C,  Jr.,  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
163    Macon    St.,    Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Perry,  Charles  F.,  Asst.  Supt..  of  Sch.,  336 
25th  St.,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Perry,  William  H.,  A.  B.  '93,  A.  M.  '96, 
Syracuse  Univ.;  Pd.  B.  '96,  State  Normal 
Col.;  Albany,  N.  Y. ;  Pd.  M.  '08,  Pd.  D. 
'09,  N.  Y.  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  Hall, 
Leominster,    Mass.,    since    19 14. 

Peters,  C.  W.,  A.  B.  '15,  Bucknell;  Asst. 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  557  Chelsea  Ave.,  Wilkins- 
burg,    Pa. 

Petersen,  Anna  J.,  Hillcrest  D  3,  South  St. 
Paul,    Minn. 

Peterson,  E.  T.,  A.  B.  '17,  Augustana;  A.  M. 
Diploma  '22,  Tchrs.  Col.;  Dir..  Ed.  Re- 
search,   Flint,    Mich.,   since   1922. 

Peterson,  Henry,  Sch.  of  Ed.,  U.  A.  C, 
Logan,    Utah. 

Peterson,  O.  E.,  A.  B.  '07,  Augustana;  Ph. 
M.  '10,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Supt,  of  Sch., 
615  Roosevelt  Court,  Sycamore,  111.,  since 
1914. 

Petit,  L.  H.,  A.  B.  '10,  Campbell  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  410  S.  Highland,  Chanute, 
Kans.,  since   1923. 

Pfaff,  Caroline  S.,  B.  A.  '16,  M.  A,  '18,  Tu- 
lane  of  La. ;  Dist.  Supt.,  4868  Constance, 
New   Orleans,    La.,    since    1920. 

Phelan,  Warren  W.,  A.  B.  '94,  A.  M.  '96, 
Columbia  Univ. ;  Ph.  D.  '03,  G.  W.  Univ. ; 
LL.  D.  '21,  Okla.  Bap.  Univ.;  Dean  Sch. 
of  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Okla.,  Norman,  Okla., 
since   19 12. 

Phelps,  C.  L.,  A.  B.  '01,  A.  M.  '03,  Dart- 
mouth; Supt.  of  Sch.,  Ishpeming,  Mich., 
since    1915. 

Philhower,  Charles  Alpaugh,  B.  S.  '09,  A.  M. 
'12,  Dickinson;  A.  M.  '15,  Columbia; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  303  Mountain  Ave.,  West- 
field,    N.   J.,   since   1917. 

Phillips,  Claude  A.,  A.  M.  '10,  Univ.  of 
Chicago;  Ph.  D.  '20,  Geo.  Peabody  Col.; 
Prof,  of  Ed.,  Dir.  El.  Sch.,  M.  S.  Univ., 
Columbia,    Mo.,    since    1924. 

Phillips,  Clyde  U.,  B.  S.  '18,  Kans.  State 
Tchrs.  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  313  N.  Mul- 
berry,  Eureka,   Kans.,  since   1921. 

Phillips,  Guy  B.,  A.  B.  '13,  Univ.  of  N.  C. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O.  Box  271,  Salisbury, 
N.   C,   since   1924. 

Phillips,  J.  J.,  B.  S.  '06,  Ohio  Wesleyan; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  410  E.  Sixth  Ave.,  Lan- 
caster,   Ohio,    since    1922. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


407 


Pickell,  Frank  G.,  A.  B.  '09,  Ind.  Univ.; 
A.  M.  '17,  T.  C,  Columbia;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Bd.    of    Ed.,    Montclair,    N.    J.,   since    1923. 

Pickens,  Sidney,  A.  B.  '14,  Ark.  Col.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  710  Harrison  St.,  Batesville,  Ark., 
since   1909. 

Pierce,  B.  L.,  A.  B.  '18,  Oberlin  Col.;  Co. 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Sandusky,   Ohio,  since   1923. 

Pierce,  V.  P.,  A.  B.  '93,  Ypsilanti;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Yale,    Mich. 

Pittman,  C.  W.  E.,  A.  B.  '12,  Univ.  of 
N.  C. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Beaufort,  N.  C,  since 
1921. 

Place,  George  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  ,234  Broad 
St.,    Salamanca,    N.   Y. 

Plenzke,  O.  H.,  A.  B.  '14,  Lawrence  Col. ; 
A.  M.  ^24,  Univ.  of  Wis.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Menasha,   Wis.,   since   1918. 

Plummer,  Louis  E.,  B.  S.  '09,  B.  C.  S.  '09, 
Ohio  Northern  Univ.;  Prin.  Fullerton 
Union  H.  S.  and  Jr.  Col.,  Fullerton,  Calif., 
since    1918. 

Polk,  Clara  M.,  Diploma  '95,  R.  I.  Col.  of 
Ed.;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  193  Washington 
Ave.,   Providence,   R.    I.,   since   1914. 

Poor,  Charles  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  407  Fifth 
St.,    Traverse    City,    Mich. 

Pope,  Alvin  E.,  B.  A.  '98,  Univ.  of  Nebr. ; 
ivi.  A.  '99,  Gallaudet  Col. ;  Supt.  N.  J. 
Sch.  for  the  Deaf,  Trenton,  N.  J.,  since 
1917. 

Pope,  Delmer  Neal,  A.  B.  '03,  Roanoke  Col.; 
M.  Acct.  '08,  Boulder  Business;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  200  So.  Lea,  Roswell,  N.  Mex.,  since 
1918. 

Pore,  O.  E.,  A.  B.  '06,  Col.  of  Wooster; 
A.  M.  '16,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Riddle  Block  No.  9, 
Ravenna,    Ohio,    since    1916. 

Porter,  E.  L.,  B.  A.  '07,  Otterbein ;  M.  A. 
'17,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  510 
Washington    St.,    Ironton,    Ohio. 

Porter,  Frederick  W.,  B.  S.  '14  Tufts;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  13  Middle  St.,  Stoneham,  Mass., 
since   1921. 

Postell,  Mary  W.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Care 
Bd.    of    Ed.,    Atlanta,    Ga. 

Pottenger,  Mary  O.,  Elemn.  Supvr.,  Kndgtn. 
and  Prim.  Gr.,  Sch.  Dept.,  City  Hall, 
Springfield,    Mass.,   since    1920. 

Potter,  Milton  C,  B.  A.  'gs;  Albion  Col.; 
M.  A.  '05,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Litt.  D. 
'15,  Univ.  of  Denver;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Sch. 
Admin.  Bldg.,  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  since 
1914. 

Potts,  D  Walter,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  6th  and  St. 
Louis   Aves.,    E.    St.    Louis,    111. 

Potwin,    R.    W.,    A.    B.    'io,    Kansas    Univ.; 

Supt.    of    Sch.,    McPherson,    Kansas,    since 

1915- 
Pound,     Edwin    Aldine,    A.     B.     '92,     Emory 

Univ.;    State   Supvr.    of   H.    S.,    Room    103, 

State   Capitol,  Atlanta,   Ga.,   since   1920. 

Pound,  Jere  M.,  Pres.  State  Normal  Col., 
Athens,    Ga. 

Poundstone,  W.  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  229  N. 
Lincoln,    Marion,    Kansas. 


Powell,  Frank  V.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Platteville, 
Wis. 

Powell,  Rhys,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Admin.  Bldg., 
Scranton,    Pa. 

Powers,  E.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  210  N.  Fourth 
St.,    Fairbury,    111. 

Powers,  F.  R.,  A.  B.  '13,  Oberlin;  A.  M. 
'20,  Columbia  T.  C. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  S. 
Main,    Amherst,    Ohio,    since    1918. 

Powers,  R.  E.,  B.  A.  '20,  Univ.  of  Tenn. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  17,  Lexington,  Tenn., 
since    1921. 

Powers,  Sue  M.,  B.  S.  '20,  Peabody  Col.  j 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Memphis,  Tenn.,  since, 
1922. 

Pratt,  Blanche  A.,  Prince  Sch.,  Winchester, 
Mass. 

Pratt,  C.  H,  A.  B.  '08,  Bates;-  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Gray,    Me.,    since    1922. 

Pratt,  Orville  C,  Ph.  B.  '95,  DePauw  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Admin.  Bldg.,  Spokane, 
Wash.,    since    1916. 

Prescott,  W.  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Opelousas, 
La. 

Pressey,  S.  L.,  Ohio  State  Univ.,  Columbus, 
Ohio. 

Preston,  Josephine  Corliss,  State  Supt.  of 
Pub.    Instr.,    Olympia,    Wash. 

Price,  E.  D.,  M.  A.  '20,  Mo.  Univ.;  Supt. 
of    Sch.,    Enid,    Okla.,    since    1915. 

Prior,  A.  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wheelersburg, 
Ohio. 

Procter,  L.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1215  N.  3d, 
Temple,   Tex. 

Prout,   F.   J.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Sandusky,   Ohio. 

Pruitt,  Edgar  C,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court 
House,    Springfield,    111.,    since    1906. 

Pruitt,  Eugene  Watts,  B.  A.  '09,  Wash.  Col. ; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Princess  Anne,  Md., 
since   1922. 

Prunty,   Merle,  313   N.  Tacoma,  Tulsa,   Okla. 

Puckett,  C.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  597, 
Mexia,    Tex. 

Puckett,  Roswell  C,  B.  E.  'og,  State  Univ. 
of  la.;  M.  A.  '23,  T.  C.  Columbia  Univ.; 
Prin.  Benj.  Bosse  H.  S.,  Evansville,  Ind., 
since   1923. 

Pugh,  Elijah  Stewart,  A.  B.  '95,  Univ.  of 
Ala. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Union  Springs,  Ala., 
since    igi2. 

Purdom,    J.    Leslie,    A.    B.    '06,    Centre  Col. ; 

A.     W.     '11,    Pn.     D.     '18,     Harvard,'  Prin. 

Harris    Tchrs.    Col.,    St.    Louis,    Mo.,  since 
ig22. 

Pyle,  Jay  C,  B.  Lit.  'g4,  Baylor  Univ.; 
M.  A.  '22,  Austin  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Sherman,  Tex.,   since   1907. 

Quackenbush,  E.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  To- 
wanda,    Pa. 

Quigley,  Samuel,  A.  B.  '05,  State  Univ.  of 
la.;  M.  A.  '11,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  D. 
Litt.  '20,  Denver  Univ. ;  Pres.  West.  State 
Col.  of  Colo.,   Gunnison,   Colo.,  since   igig. 


408 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Quinn,  James  Joseph,  A.  B.  '12,  Amherst; 
A.  M.  '14,  Harvard;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Win- 
chester,  Mass.,   since   1923. 

Radcliffe,  Paul  Rodney,  A.  B.  '09,  Mary- 
ville;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Nutley,  N.  J.,  since 
1920. 

Rae,   J.    J.,    Supt   of   Sch.,    Caldwell,    Idaho. 

Raines,  Sigel  E.,  A.  B.  '97,  Ind.  St.  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Library  Bldg.,  Freeport, 
111.,   since    1903. 

Rail,  Edward  Everett,  B.  A.  '00,  Univ.  of 
la. ;  Ph.  D.  '03,  Yale  Univ. ;  Pres.  and 
Prof,  of  Ed.,  Northwestern  Col. ;  Naper- 
ville,   111.,   since   1916. 

Ramsey,  James  W.,  A.  B.  '13,  Ouachita  Col.; 
M.  A.  '21,  Geo.  Peabody  Col.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Fort    Smith,    Ark. 

Randal,  Boyd,  A.  M.  '15,  Columbia;  A.  B. 
'og,  W.  Va.  Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  490, 
Salem,    W.    Va.,    since    1920. 

Randall,  Henry  H.,  A.  B.  '00,  Bowdoin; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Auburn,   Me.,   since   1907. 

Randle,  Gilbert  P.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Danville, 
111. 

Ranger,  Walter  E.,  A.  B.  '79,  A.  M.  '83, 
Bates  Col.;  A.  M.  '02,  Univ.  of  Vt. ; 
LL.  D.  '07,  Bates  Col.;  Ed.  D.  '22,  R.  I. 
State  Col.;  State  Com.  of  Ed.,  118  State 
House,    Providence,    R.    I.,   since    1905/ 

Rapp,  Eli  M.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  134  Cly- 
mer,  Reading,   Pa. 

Rather,  Arthur  A.,  A.  B.  '16,  Univ.  of  Mich.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  255  Union  St.,  Ionia,  Mich., 
since   1917. 

Rather,  L.  H.,  B.  A.  '14,  Univ.  of  Tex.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  302,  Bonham,  Tex., 
since   1921. 

Rathmann,  Carl  G.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  911 
Locust    St.,    St.    Louis,    Mo. 

Rawdon,  Howard  L.,  A.  B.  '04,  A.  M.  '14, 
Oberlin  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Oberlin,  Ohio, 
since   1908. 

Rawlins,  Robert  E.,  H.  S.  Place,  Pierre, 
S.  D. 

Raymond,  Sister  M.,  O.  S.  D.,  B.  A.  '17, 
Dominican  Col. ;  Dean  Dominican  Col., 
San   Rafael,    Calif.,   since    1920. 

Ream,   C.   H.,   Supt.  of  Sch.,   Clear   Lake,  la. 

Reber,  Howard  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Vineland, 
N.    J.,    since    1913. 

Redwine,  L.  M.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Green- 
wood,   Ark. 

Redwing,  A.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Marysville, 
Mich. 

Reed,   Lula   A.,   B.  S.   '17,    M.   A.   '24,   T.   C, 

Columbia   Univ. ;  Supvr.    Elemn.    Sch.,   Bd. 

of    Ed.,    114    W.  Wesley,    Jackson,    Mich., 
since   1913. 

Reedy,  I.  D.,  Ph.  B.  '22,  Univ.  of  Chicago; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  701  N.  Washington  St., 
Bicknell,    Ind.,   since    1921. 

Reese,  L.  W.,  B.  S.  '20,  Ohio  Northern 
Univ.;    1639    Minn.   Ave.,    Columbus,   Ohio. 

Rehnstrand,  Vera  C,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  13 16 
Grand    Ave.,    Superior,    Wis. 


Reid,  E.  M.,  A.  B.  '16,  M.  A.  '18,  Univ. 
of  Utah;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  26,  Kamas, 
Utah,    since    1923. 

Reid,  O.  L.,  A.  B.  '98,  Ind.  Univ.;  LL.  B. 
'05,  Univ.  of  Louisville;  M.  A.  '22,  N.  Y. 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  20  W.  Wood  St., 
Youngstown,    Ohio,   since    ig2o. 

Reid,  Robt.  L.,  M.  D.  '97,  A.  B.  '02,  Di- 
ploma '12,  State  Univ.  of  Mo.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  814  N.  gth  St.,  Keokuk,  Iowa,  since 
1922. 

Reilly,  Joseph  J.,  A.  B.  '04,  Holy  Cross 
Col.,  Worcester;  A.  M.  'og,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Ph.  D.  '12,  Yale  Univ.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,   Box  H,  Ware,   Mass.,   since   1921. 

Reinertsen,  S.  G.,  B.  A.  '11,  St.  Olaf  Col.; 
ft".  A.  '21,  Univ.  of  Colo.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Jackson,    Minn.,    since    1921. 

Remaley,  Frank  H.,  A.  B.  '01,  A.  M.  '09, 
Otterbein;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  333  Car- 
negie   PI.,    Pittsburgh,    Pa.,    since    1920. 

Rennolds,  William  Gregory,  Dist.  Supt  of 
Sch.,    Center  Cross,   Va. 

Replogle,  S.  H.,  A.  B.  '21,  Univ.  of  Pitts.; 
Asst.  Supt.  Co.  Sch.,  5430  Kipling  Road, 
Pittsburgh,    Pa.,    since    19 16. 

Reynolds,  Blanche  T.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Court    House,    Ventura,    Calif.,    since    1918. 

Reynolds,  F.  E.,  B.  A.  '8g,  Natl.  Normal 
oniv. ;  B.  A.  '08,  Defiance  Col.;  becy.- 
Treas,  Ohio  State  Tchrs.  Asso.,  416  Cham- 
ber  of   Commerce,    Columbus,    Ohio. 

Reynolds,  John  W.,  A.  B.  '14,  Ind.  Univ.; 
Supt   of   Sch.,   Redkey,    Ind.,    since    1921. 

Reynolds,  Mrs.  Kate  B.,  Co.  Supt  of  Sch., 
830   E.    5th   St.,   Tucson,   Ariz.,-  since   1921. 

Rhett,  A.  Burnet,  M.  A.  '99,  B.  A.  'gg, 
W.  Va. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Charleston,  S.  C, 
since   1921. 

Rhoads,  L.  C,  A.  B.  '19,  Univ.  of  Wash.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  729  So.  4th,  Raton,  N.  Mex., 
since   1917. 

Rhodes,  Jeremiah,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  407  Russell 
bldg.,    San   Antonio,    Texas. 

Rice,  DuFay  R.,  Pd.  B.  '07,  Mo.  State 
Normal;  A.  B.  'n,  Univ.  of  Colo.;  A.  M. 
'17,  T.  C.  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Ironwood,    Mich.,    since    1920. 

Rice,  H.  A.,  A.  B.  '20,  W.  Va.  Univ.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Box  8,  Grafton,  W.  Va.,  since 
1923. 

Rice,   W.    H.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   London,   Ohio. 

Richards,  Charles  W.,  L.  I.  '01,  Peabody 
Col.;  A.  B.  '03,  Univ.  of  Nashville;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Box  537,  Ardmore,  Okla.,  since 
1911. 

Richardson,  E.  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Minden, 
La. 

Richardson,  J.  W.,  B.  S.  '06,  Iowa  Wes. ; 
i<i.  A.  '13,  State  Univ.  of  la.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Hibbing,  Minn.,  since 
1923. 

Richardson,  W.  H.,  A.  M.  '04,  Defiance, 
Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  240  Chestnut  St., 
Cuyahoga    Falls,    Ohio,    since    1908. 

Richardson,  W.  L.,  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Butler 
Univ.,    Indianapolis,    Ind. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


409 


Richeson,    John  J.,    B.    S.    '10,    Ohio    Univ.; 

Ped.     D.     '17,  Miami    Univ.;     A.     M.     '21, 

Tchrs.  '  Col.,  Columbia;     Supt.     of     Sch., 

Decatur,    111.,  since    1921. 

Richmond,  D.  S.,  B.  A.  '20,  M.  A.  '21,  Univ. 
of  So.  Calif.;  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Brawley, 
Calif.,   since   1922. 

Richmond  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2700  Sutton 
Ave.,    Maplewood,    Mo. 

Riefling,  B.  Jeannette,  B.  S.  'n  A.  B.  '13, 
Mo.  Univ.;  A.  M.  '20,  Columbia;  Grad. 
Stud.  T.  C.  Columbia  Univ.;  106  Morn- 
ingside   Dr.,   New  York,    N.   Y. 

Riemer,  G.  C.  L.,  State  Normal  Sch., 
Bloomsburg,    Pa. 

Riggs,  James  G.,  A.  B.  '88,  A.  M.  '91,  Am- 
herst; Ped.  D.  '12,  State  Col.  for  Tchrs., 
Albany;  Prin.  State  Normal  Sch.,  Oswego, 
N.   Y.,  since   1913. 

Ringstrom,  N.  H.,  B.  A.  '18,  State  Univ. 
of  Iowa;  Supt:  of  Sch.,  1415  Pleasant  St., 
Knoxville,    Iowa,    since    1921. 

Risdon,  C.  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Independence, 
Kans. 

Risley,  James  H.,  A.  B.  '07,  Ind.  Univ.; 
Ph.  M.  '10,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  Centennial  Bldg.,  Pueblo,  Colo., 
since   1921. 

Rittinger,  John  W.,  B.  S.  '94,  Mich.  Ag. 
Col.;  Co.  Supt  of  Sch.,  410  E.  South  St., 
South    Bend,    Ind.,   since    1921. 

Robb,   S.   M.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Farrell,   Pa. 

Robbins,  C.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Montpelier, 
Ohio. 

Robbins,  Fred  W.,  Ph.  B.  '98,  Pd.  D.  '15, 
Bucknell  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  11 12  W. 
4th   St.,  Williamsport,   Pa.,  since   1914. 

Roberts,  Thos.  R.,  Ph.  B.  '05,  Upper  la. 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Independence,  la., 
since   1918. 

Robertson,  C.  L.,  B.  A.  '11,  Univ.  of  N.  D. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  215  4th  Ave.,  S.,  James- 
town,  N.   D.,  since   1924. 

Robinson,  Albert,  A.  B.  '93,  Colby  Col. ; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Peabody,   Mass.,  since   1903. 

Robinson,  Ernest  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  City 
Hall,    Fitchburg,    Mass.,    since    1917. 

Robinson,  Henrietta  A.,  1660  Calvert  Ave., 
Detroit,    Mich. 

Robinson,  Louis  C,  A.  B.  '05,  Wash.  Col., 
Chestertown,  Md. ;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
208  Washington  Ave.,'  Chestertown,  Md., 
since   1922. 

Rockwell,  Leon  Howard,  B.  S.  '19,  N.  Y. 
Univ.;  A.  M.  '21,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia 
Univ. ;  State  Normal  School,  Bloomsburg, 
Pa. 

Rodes,  Lester  A.,  A.  M.  '17,  Univ.  of  Pa.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Cape  May,  N.  J.,  since 
1921. 

Rodgers,  J.  Harvey,  Ed.  M.  '21,  Harvard 
Univ.;  Supvr.  Prin.,  Glassboro,  N.  J.,  since 
1921. 

Rodman,  Benedict  J.,  A.  B.  '06,  A.  M.  'n, 
St.  Louis  Univ. ;  Pres.  St.  Mary's  Col. ; 
St.    Marys,    Kans.,    since    1922. 


Rogers,  Alex  R.,  Supt.  Jr.  H.  S.,  Strath- 
more,    Mich.,   since    1921. 

Rohr,  J.   E.,  Supv.,  Prin.,  Nekoosa,  Wis. 

Rohrbough,  E.  G.,  A.  B.  '00,  Allegheny  Col.; 
A.  M.  '06,  Harvard  Univ.;  Pres.  State 
Normal  Sch.,  Glenville,  W.  Va.,  since  1908. 

Root,  Frank  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O.  Box 
33,   Fayetteville,   Ark. 

Rose,  C.  E.,  A.  B.  '99,  Kansas;  A.  M.  '13, 
Columbia;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Safford  Sch. 
Bldg.,   Tucson,   Ariz.,   since   1920. 

Rosier,  Joseph,  A.  M.  '15,  Salem  Col.;  Pres. 
State  Normal  Sch.,  Fairmont,  W.  Va., 
since    1915. 

Ross,  Carmon,  Ph.  B.  '05,  Lafayette  Col. ; 
A.  M.  '16,  Ph.  D.  '22,  Univ.  of  Pa.;  Supvr. 
Prin.,    Doylestown,    Pa.,    since    igo6. 

Rossman,  John  G.,  A.  M.  '17,  Tchrs.  Col.; 
Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  405  Broadway,  Gary, 
Ind.,  since   1923. 

Roudabush,  Charles  E.,  A.  B.  '03,  Lebanon 
Valley  Col.;  A.  M.  '24,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  520  Front  St.,  Minersville, 
Pa.,   since    1915. 

Round,  Florence  H.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  702 
E.    Madison  Ave.,    Iola,   Kans.,   since   1921. 

Rouse,  Edwin  L.,  A.  B.  '10,  Cotner  Col.; 
A.  M.  '19,  Univ.  of  Nebr. ;  LL.  D.  Cot- 
ner Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  818,  Scotts- 
bluff,    Nebr.,   since   1921. 

Rowland,  Albert  Lindsay,  A.  B.  '08,  Temple 
Univ.;  M.  A.  '11,  Ph.  D.  '14,  Univ.  of 
Pa.;  Dir.  Tchr.  Bur.,  State  Dept.  of  Pub. 
Instr.,    Harrisburg,    Pa.,   since   1919. 

Roy,  V.  L.,  B.  S.  '90,  La.  State  Univ.; 
Pres.  La.  State  Normal  Col. ;  Natchitoches, 
La.,  since   191 1. 

Royce,  Asa  M.,  Pd.  B.  '04,  Univ.  of  Wis.; 
Pres.  State  Norm.  Sch.,  Platteville,  Wis., 
since    1916. 

Rugg,  O.  Harold,  B.  S.  '08,  Dartmouth  Col.; 
C.  E.  '09,  Thayer  Sch.  of  Eng. ;  Ph.  D. 
'15,    Univ.    of    111.;     Prof,    of    Ed.,    T.    C, 

Columbia   Univ. ;    New   York,    N.    Y.,   since 
19 19. 

Ruhl,  Howard  T.,  A.  B.  '07,  St.  John's  Col.; 
A.  M.  '17,  Columbia  Univ.;  Co.  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Prince    Frederick,    Md.,    since    1921. 

Rule,  James  N.,  B.  S.  '98,  M.  S.  '01,  Wash, 
and  Jeff.;  Dept.  Supt.,  State  Dept.  of  Pub. 
Instr.,  3004  N.  Second  St.,  Harrisburg, 
Pa.,   since    1922. 

Runyan,  Charles,  246  Grant  Ave.,  New 
Brunswick,    N.   J. 

Russell,  F.  O.,  A.  B.  '15,  Defiance  Col.; 
M.  A.  '19,  O.  S.  U. ;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Bryan,   Ohio,  since   1922. 

Russell,  R.  G.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Clayton, 
Mo. 

Russell,  William  F.,  A.  B.  '10,  Cornell 
Univ.;  Ph.  D.  '14,  Columbia  U. ;  Prof, 
of  Ed.,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.;  525  W. 
120   St.,    New  York,   N.   Y.,   since   1923. 

Russum,  Elizabeth,  B.  E.  'og,  S.  W.  Tchrs. 
Col.,  Springfield,  Mo.;  B.  S.  '22,  Univ.  of 
Idaho;  State  Supt.  of  Pub.  Instr.,  State 
House,    Boise,    Idaho. 


410 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Rutherford,  Kenneth  L.,  A.  B.  '16,  Hobart 
Col.;  M.  A.  '24,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Supvg.  Prin.,  Fayetteville,  N.  Y.,  since 
1920. 

Ryan,  Belle  M.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Omaha, 
Nebr. 

Ryan,    Orson,    Supt.    of   Sch.,    Logan,    Utah. 

Ryan,  W.  Carson,  Jr.,  A.  B.  '07,  Harvard; 
Ph.  D.  '18,  G.  W.  Univ.;  Prof,  of  Ed., 
Swathmore  Col.;  Swathmore,  Pa.,  since 
1921. 

Saam,  Theodore,  B.  S.  'g8,  Lennox  Col.; 
A.  N.  '03,  Univ.  of  Iowa;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Council   Bluffs,    Iowa,   since    1917. 

Sachse,  T.  J.,  M.  A.  '23,  T.  C,  Columbia; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Winsted,   Conn.,   since   1923. 

Safford,  Adelbert  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Read- 
ing, Mass. 

St.  Clair,  Robert  E.,  B.  Pd.  'og,  Kirksville 
State  Norm.;  Ph.  B.  '16,  Univ.  of  Chicago; 
M.  A.  '24,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.;  Prin. 
Benton  Elemn.  Sch.,  1344  Laurel  St.,  St. 
Louis,    Mo.,    since    1909. 

St.  John,  Claude  E.,  Diploma  '03,  Kans. 
State  Normal  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Arkansas 
City,   Kans.,   since   1918. 

Salisbury,  Ethel  I.,  M.  A.  '17,  T.  C,  Co- 
lumbia Univ.;  Asso.  Prof,  of  Elemn.  Ed., 
Dir.  Course  of  Study,  Univ.  of  Calif.;  822 
Security  Bldg.,  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  since 
1919. 

Sampson,  William  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  643 
Chestnut   St.,    Du    Bois,    Pa. 

Sanborn,  Clarence  C,  A.  B.  '08,  Leland 
Stanford;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  4  Orange  St., 
Farmington,    N.    H.,   since   1921. 

Sanders,  Grant  L.,  A.  B.  '12,  Ellsworth  Col.; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Plover,   Iowa,   since   1923. 

Sandwick,  Richard  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  High- 
land Park,   111. 

Saunders,  C.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Aberdeen, 
Miss. 

Saunders,  Joseph  H.,  A.  B.,  William  and 
Mary  Col.;  A.  M.  '24,  Univ.  of  Chicago; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  172,  Newport  News, 
Va.,  since   1921. 

Saunders,  Robert  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch..  1154 
Clinton   Ave.,    Irvington,    N.   J. 

Sauvain,  Nelson,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Devils  Lake, 
N.  Dak. 

Savitz,  J.  J.,  Prin.  Normal  Sch.,  Glassboro, 
N.  J. 

Saxvik,  H.  O.,  B  .A.  '05,  Luther  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  622  8th  St.,  Bismarck,  N. 
D.,   since   1922. 

Scales,  Nan  B.,  Supt.  of  Co.  Sch.,  Steam- 
boat   Springs,    Colo.,    since    1923. 

Schafer,  J.  J.,  A.  B.  '20,  Univ.  of  Mich.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  510  McDonald  St.,  Midland, 
Mich.,   since   1919. 

Scheer,    R.    A.,    Supt.    of   Sch.,    Atlanta,    111. 

Schlagle,  F.  L.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Library 
Bldg.,    Kansas    City,    Mo. 

Schlenvogt,  J.  H.,  M.  A.  '15,  B.  S.  '14, 
Wis.;     Supt.    of    Con.     Sch.,     Menlo,    la., 

since   ig22. 


Schmidt,  H.  W.,  State  Dept.  of  Pub.  Inst., 
Madison,  Wis. 

Schmitt,  Irvin  H.,  B.  A.  '16,  Coe  Col.; 
Supt.    of    Sch.,    Milford,    la.,    since    1922. 

Schnekloth,  Hermine  C.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
11    River    View    PI.,    Davenport,    Iowa. 

Scholl,  Joseph  Hiram,  Diploma  '93,  Ind. 
State  Normal  Sch.;  A.  B.  '98,  Ind.  State 
Univ.;    Supt.    of    Sch.,    Milton,    Ind. 

Schrader,  Carl  L.,  State  Dept.  of  Ed., 
Boston,   Mass. 

Schreiber,  Paul  D.,  B.  S.  '12,  Bucknell 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Port 
Washington,    N.    Y.,    since    ig2o. 

Schroeder,  Mrs.  C.  F.,  Ph.  B.  '11,  Colo. 
Tchrs.  Col.;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Julesburg, 
Colo.,   since    1920. 

Schuck,  Albert  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Freehold, 
N.    J. 

Schuyler,  Paul  M.,  Co.  Com.  6f  Sch.,  Menom- 
inee,  Mich. 

Schwartz,  Harwood  Muzzy,  B.  S.  '07,  M. 
S.  '10,  Hamilton  Col.;  T.  C,  Columbia 
Univ.,  439  W.  123rd  St.,  Apt.  7,  New 
York,    N.    Y.,    since    1923. 

Schwegler,  Raymond  A.,  A.  B.  '99,  Brown; 
M.  A.  '06,  Ottawa;  Act.  Dean  Sch.  of 
Ed.,    Lawrence,    Kans.,    since    1923. 

Schweickart,  E.  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Fremont, 
Ohio. 

Schweickhard,  Philip,  B.  S.,  '17,  Chicago; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Biwabik,    Minn.,   since   1921. 

Schwerin,  Emma,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hart- 
ington,    Nebr.,    since    1915. 

Schwiering,  O.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Rock 
Springs,   Wyo. 

Scolley,  Jennie  E.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  229 
Essex   St.,    Holyoke,   Mass.,   since    1917. 

Scott,  C.  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  19  Winans  St., 
East  Orange,   N.   J. 

Scott,  Frank  A.,  A.  B.  '03,  Harvard;  A. 
M.  '13,  Dartmouth;  Ed.  M.  '23,  Harvard; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  31  Blake  St.,  Belmont  78, 
Mass.,    since    1921. 

Scott,  Robert  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  St.  Louis 
Park,   Minn. 

Scott,  R.  Ray,  M.  A.  '16,  Columbia;  Hd. 
Dept.  of  Ed.,  W.  Va.  Wes.,  50  Kanawha 
St.,   Buckhannon,   W.   Va.,   since   1920. 

Scott,  Zenos  E.,  B.  S.  '10,  Moorehill  Col.; 
A.  M.  '13,  T.  C,  Columbia;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Springfield,    Mass.,    since    1923. 

Scudder,  Jesse  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  958  Sala- 
monie    St.,    Huntington,    Ind. 

Scully,  John  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2gg  Ash  St., 
Brockton,    Mass. 

Seale,  E.   C,   Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Elyria,  Ohio. 

Sealey.  R.  M.,  A.  B.  '11,  Univ.  of  Fla. ; 
State  Insp.  of  H.  S.,  Tallahassee,  Fla., 
since   ig23. 

Sealock,  W.  E.,  A.  B.  '05,  Ohio  State  Univ.; 
Ph.  D.  '16,  Columbia  Univ.;  Dean  Col. 
of  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Nebr.,,Sta.  A,  Box  1372, 
Lincoln,    Nebr.,    since    ig22. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


411 


Seaman,  W.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Valley 
Center,    Kans. 

Searle,  Albert  H.,  B.  A.  '21,  la.  State  Tchrs. 
Col.;    Supt.    of    Sch.,    Bridgewater,    la. 

Seekell,  Grace  Edith,  B.  A.  '22,  Univ.  of 
Mich. ;  Supvr.  Course  of  Study  for  Tr. 
Sch.,  West.  Normal  Tr.  Sch.,  Kalamazoo, 
Mich.,  since   1922. 

Seelye,  Mary  W.,  Supt.  Andrews  Inst.,  Wil- 
loughby,    Ohio. 

Seerly,  Homer  Horatio,  B.  Ph.  '73,  B.  D. 
•75,  M.  A.  '76,  LL.  D.  '01,  State  Univ.  of 
Iowa;  LL.  D.  '98,  Penn.  Col.,  Oskaloosa, 
Iowa;  Pres.  of  Iowa  State  Tchrs.  Col., 
Cedar    Falls,    Iowa,    since    1886. 

Selleck,  E.  R.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  no  W.  7th 
St.,   Sterling,   111. 

Sellew,  Edward  B.,  B.  A.  '90,  Williams; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Middletown,  Conn.,  since 
1917. 

Selover,  Jesse,  Supvg.  Prin.,  Sayreville,  N.  J. 

Sentelle,  R.  E.,  A.  B.  '01,  Wake  Forest; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Tarboro,  N.  C,  since 
1920. 

Senter,  A.  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  941  S.  Main, 
Ottawa,    Kans. 

Serena,  Joseph  A.,  A.  B.  '04,  LL.  D.  '22, 
Eureka  Col.;  Pres.  S.  E.  Mo.  State  Tchrs. 
Col.,    Cape    Girardeau,    Mo.,    since    1921. 

Sexson,  John  A.,  Pd.  B.  '05,  Pd.  M.  '08, 
Colo.  Normal  Sch.;  B.  A.  '12,  Colo.  State 
Tchrs.  Col.;  M.  A.  '18,  Univ.  of  Denver; 
Supt.    of    Sch.,    Sterling    Colo.,    since    1912. 

Sexton,  Jay  Wesley,  A.  B.  '02,  Albion  Col. ; 
M.  A.  '12,  Univ.  of  Mich.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
City    Hall,    Lansing,    Mich.,    since    1916. 

Sexton,  Mrs.  Lena  B.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Las   Cruces,   N.    Mex. 

Shackelford,  B.  G.,  A.  M.  '84,  Central  Col.; 
Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  911  Locust  St.,  St. 
Louis,    Mo.,    since    1922. 

Shackelford,  E.  M.,  LL.  D.  '13,  Univ.  of 
Ala.;  Pres.  State  Norm.  Sch.,  Troy,  Ala., 
since    1899. 

Shafer,  B.  F.,  M.  A.  '23,  Univ.  of  Chicago; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Jacksonville, 
111.,  since  1922. 

Shafer,  Harry  M.,  Dept.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1268 
Fifth    Ave.,    Los   Angeles,    Calif. 

Shaffer,  Roscoe  D.,  A.  B.  '24,  Ball  Tchrs. 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Dunkirk,  Ind.,  since 
1921. 

Shaffer,  Roy  Lee,  Ph.  B.  '09,  Dickinson ; 
A.  M.  '17,  Columbia;  Asst.  State  Comm. 
of  Ed.,  State  House,  Trenton,  N.  J., 
since    1921. 

Shambach,  John  E.,  B.  A.  '14,  Univ.  of 
Mich.;  Supv.  Prin.  of  Sch.,  415  Third 
Ave.,  Westmont,  Johnstown,  Pa.,  since 
1922. 

Shankland,  Sherwood  D.,  A.  B.  '94,  West. 
Res.  Univ.;  A.  M.  '18,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Ex.  Secy.,  Dept.  of  Supt.,  N.  E.  A.,  1201 
Sixteenth  St.,  N.  W.,  Washington,  D.  C, 
since   1922. 

Shanley,  Miss  M.  V.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2 
Harrison   Ave.,    Jersey    City,    N.    J. 


Shannon,  J.  R.,  A.  B.  '17,  Ind.  State  Norm.; 
A.  M.  '22,  Ind.  Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  256 
E.  Columbia  St.,  Danville,  Ind.,  since 
1923. 

Sharrard,  Kate,  B.  S.  '14,  M.  A.  '22,  Tchrs. 
Col.,  Columbia  Univ. ;  Grd.  Supvr.  Pub. 
Sch.,  Central  Sch.  Bldg.,  York,  Pa.,  since 
ig22. 

Shaw,  Alice  L.,  38  Outlook  Rd.,  Swamp- 
scott,   Mass. 

Shaw,  Fred  L.,  State  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Capitol, 
Pierre,  S.   Dak. 

Shaw,  J.  O.,  B.  S.  '22,  Univ.  of  Mo.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  605  N.  10th  St.,  Frederick,  Okla., 
since   1914. 

Shawkey,  M.  P.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  113  Adams, 
Huntington,    W.     Va. 

Sheffer,  W.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  730  W.  7th 
St.,    Concordia,    Kans. 

Sheffield,    John    P.,    B.    S.    '21,    Kans.    State 
,     Tchrs.     Col. ;     Supt.     of    Sch.,     Cherryvale, 
Kans.,    since    1924. 

Shelburne,  L.  F.,  M.  A.  '14,  Univ.  of  Va. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Clifton  Forge,  Va.,  since 
1923. 

Shelton,  Frank  M.,  B.  S.  '99,  Mt.  Union 
Col.;  M.  A.  'n,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  1401  N.  Limestone  St.,  Spring- 
field,  Ohio,   since    1924. 

Shepard,  James  E.,  Ph.  G.  '94,  Shaw  Univ. ; 
D.  D.  '12,  Muskingum;  A.  M.  '13,  Selma 
Univ.;  Prin.  State  Norm.  Sch.,  Durham, 
N.    C,    since   1910. 

Shepherd,  Fred  S.,  A.  B.  '84,  Beloit  Col.; 
Ph.  D.  '97,  Univ.  of  Penna. ;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  Hobart  Trust  Bldg.,  Passaic,  N.  J., 
since   1914. 

Shepherd,   H.   P.,   1424  A  St.,   Lincoln,   Nebr. 

Sheridan,  Bernard  M.,  A.  B.  '87,  A.  M.  '03, 
Boston  Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lawrence, 
Mass.,  since  1904. 

Sherrard,  R.  M.,  A.  B.  '91,  A.  M.  '94,  Wash, 
and  Jeff.  Col.;  Asso.  Supt.,  732  Fulton 
Bldg.,    Pittsburgh,    Pa.,    since    1912. 

Shibley,  Arleigh  P.,  B.  P.  'it,  State  Tchrs. 
Col.,  Kirksville;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wilson 
Bldg.,    El    Centro,    Calif.,   since    1920. 

Shiels,  Albert,  A.  B.  '86,  Col.  of  the  City  of 
N.  Y.;  Pd.  M.  '96,  N.  Y.  Univ.;  A.  M. 
'99,  N.  Y.  Univ.;  L.  H.  D.  '11,  Muhlen- 
berg Col.;  Prof,  of  Ed.,  Teachers  Col... 
Columbia    Univ.,    N.    Y.,    since    1922. 

Shigetaka,  Abe,  Asso.  Prof,  of  Sch.  Admin., 
Tokio  Imperial  Univ.,  Tokio,  Japan,  since 
1918. 

Shilling,  John,  Ph.  B.  '08,  A.  M.  '10,  Dick- 
inson; Asst.  State  Supt.,  Dover,  Del., 
since   1919. 

Shinn,  Anna  Lois,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  River 
Forest,  111. 

Shipp,    J.    H.,    Supt.    of    Sch.,    221     N.    East 

9th,    Washington,    Ind. 
Shirley,  William  F.,  B.  A.  '07,  Wabash  Col.; 

M.  A.   '21,   Columbia   Univ.;   Supt.  of  Sch., 

Marshalltown,    Iowa,    since    1920. 
Shively,     Charles    A.,    A.     M.    '05,    Univ.    of 

Kans.;    Prof,    of    Ed.,    421    W.   Juniata   St., 

Hays,    Kans.,    since    1905. 


412 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Shomaker,  S.  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  439  North, 
Murphysboro,    111. 

Short,  E.   B.,  Co.   Supt.  of  Sch.,   Salem,   Ark. 

Shotwell,  Fred  C,  Ph.  B.  '16,  Lafayette 
Col.;  A.  M.  '21,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Supvg.  Prin.,  1  Sch.  Plaza,  Franklin,  N. 
J.,  since  1923. 

Showalter,  Noah  David,  B.  A.  '08,  M.  A. 
'09,  Wash.  State  Col.;  Pres.  State  Tchrs. 
Col.,    Cheney,    Wash.,   since    1910. 

Shull,  S.  E.,  A.  M.  '03,  Lafayette;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  184  Kearny  Ave.,  Perth  Amboy, 
N.   J.,   since   1895. 

Shuman,  W.  L.,  A.  B.  '21,  Ohio  State  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  R.  F.  D.  1,  South  Euclid, 
Ohio,   since   1922. 

Shumway,  C.  W.,  B.  Ph.  '88,  Cornell  Col.; 
SLupt.  of  Sch.,  1 1 12  Columbia  St.,  Van- 
couver,   Wash.,    since    1895. 

Sickles,  Frederick  James,  A.  B.  '08,  Syra 
cuse  Univ.;  A.  M.  '18,  T.  C,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Roosevelt  Jr.  H.  S., 
New    Brunswick,    N.    J.,    since    1923. 

Siders,  Walter  R.,  B.  S.  '91,  Fremont  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Pocatello,  Idaho,  since  i8gg. 

Siepert,  Albert  F.,  B.  S.  '13,  T.  C,  Columbia 
Univ.;  A.  M.  '24,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Hd. 
Dept.  of  Ed.,  Bradley  Polytech.  Inst., 
500   Bradley  Ave.,   Peoria,    111.,   since   1913. 

Sifert,  E.  R.,  A.  B.  '13,  Des  Moines  Univ. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Central  Bldg.,  Webster 
City,    la.,    since    1921. 

Silke,  Lucy  S.,  Supvr.  of  Art,  Elemn.  Sch., 
830  Oakwood  Blvd.,  Chicago,  111.,  since 
1914. 

Sill,  Robert  A.,  Ed.  Dept.,  Amer.  Crayon 
Co.,    Sandusky,    Ohio. 

Silvernale,  John  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  408  Mich. 
Ave.,    Menominee,    Mich. 

Simmons,  W.  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Vicksburg, 
Mich. 

Simon,   H.   B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,   Norfolk,   Nebr. 

Simpson,  Alfred  Dexter,  A.  B.  '13,  Syra- 
cuse; M.  A.  '23,  Yale;  Dir.  Res.  and 
Surv.,  State  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Rm.  42,  Capitol, 
Hartford,    Conn.,    since    1923. 

Simpson,  I.  Jewell,  A.  B.  '99,  West.  Md. 
Col.;  A.  M.  '24,  Columbia  Univ.;  State 
Supvr.  of  Elemen.  Sch.,  Preston  Apts., 
Baltimore,    Md.,    since    1922. 

Sims,  G.  M.,  B.  A.  '04,  Baylor  Univ. ;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Webster  Bldg.,  Port  Arthur,  Tex., 
since   1914. 

Sinclair,  F.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Cassopolis, 
Mich. 

Singleton,  Gordon  G.,  B.  S.  '19,  Univ.  of 
Ga. ;  M.  A.  '24,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia 
Univ.;    525   W.    120  St.,   New  York,   N.   Y. 

Sipple,   E.    M.,   B.   P.   '07,   Mo.   State   Norm.; 

B.  S.    '14,    Univ.    of    Mo.;    M.    A.    '24,    T. 

C,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  309 
la.  State  Bank,  Burlington,  la.,  since 
1919. 

Skelton,  William  F.,  B.  S.  '22,  Boston  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Pittsburg,  N.  H.,  since 
1922. 


Skidmore,  Charles  H.,  B.  L.  '01,  B.  Y.  Col.; 
Supt.    of    Sch.,    Brigham    City,    Utah. 

Skinner,  Avery  W.,  A.  B.  '92,  Syracuse 
Univ. ;  Dir.  Exam,  and  Insp.  Div.,  N.  Y. 
State  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  since 
19 19. 

Skinner,  B.  O.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  505  Third  St., 
Marietta,    Ohio. 

Skinner,  John  J.,  S.  B.  '06,  Upper  Iowa 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Owatonna,  Minn., 
since  1912. 

Skinner,  S.  J.,  A.  B.  '15,  A.  M.  '16,  Univ. 
of  Mich.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Belding,  Mich., 
since    1918. 

Slade,  A.  A.,  A.  B.  '11,  State  Univ.  of  la.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  416  C.  Y.  Ave.,  Casper, 
Wyo.,   since    1920. 

Slater,  C.  P.,  B.  S.  '14,  Parsons  Col.;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,   West   Liberty,    Iowa.,   since    1920. 

Slawson,  S.  J.,  72  Park  "Ave.,  Johnstown, 
Pa. 

Slayton,  William  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  140 
Orchard    St.,    Portsmouth,    N.    H. 

Sloop,  Arthur  H.,  A.  B.  '02,  A.  M.  '09,  Dick- 
inson Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  138  E.  Curtin 
St.,   Bellefonte,   Pa.,   since   1918. 

Slothower,  Harry  W.,  B.  S.  '15,  Albright; 
Prin.   H.    S.,    Mt.    Union,   Pa.,   since   1921. 

Small,  William,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Peters- 
burg,  111. 

Smart,  Bessie,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Milledgeville, 
111. 

Smart,  Frank  L.,  A.  B.  '96,  Harvard;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  1 144  Main,  Davenport,  Iowa,  since 
1906. 

Smith,  Arthur  O.,  M.  A.  '14,  N.  Y.  Univ.; 
B.  S.  '11,  N.  Y.,  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
West   Hoboken,    N.   J.;    since   1917. 

Smith,  Aubrey  G.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Medford, 
Oregon,    since    1920. 

Smith,  Bela  B.,  B.  A.  '07,  Lafayette  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Connellsville,  Pa.,  since 
1920. 

Smith,  C.  A.,  B.  S.  '21,  Univ.  of  Utah, 
Supt.  of  Sch.  Dist.  19,  Afton,  Wyo.,  since 
1921. 

Smith,  Carleton  Blose,  A.  B.  '19,  Oska- 
loosa,  la.,  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  807  S.  9th 
St.,   Pekin,   111.,   since   1923. 

Smith,  C.  C,  A.  B.  '12,  Lebanon  Valley 
Col.;  A.  M.  '19,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Mt.   Union,    Pa.,   since   1921. 

Smith,  Erman  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Barrington, 
111. 

Smith,  Ernest  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1323  Hin- 
man    St.,    Evanston,    111. 

Smith,  F.  L.,  B.  S.  '10,  Syracuse  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lancaster,  N.  Y.,  since 
1921. 

Smith,  George  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Plymouth, 
Mich. 

Smith,  George  E.,  Dept.  Supt.  of  Ed.,  232 
Hoyt,   Buffalo,   N.   Y. 

Smith,  George  O.,  B.  S.,  '01,  Valparaiso 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.;  Princeton,  111.,  since 
1923. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


413 


Smith,  Harry  P.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lawrence, 
Kans. 

Smith,  Henry  E.,  B.  P.  '20,  Univ.  of  Wis.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  618  Madison  St.,  Oconto, 
Wis.,    since    1920. 

Smith,  H.  H.,  A.  B.  'i4-'i5,  Wabash  Col.; 
Prin.  of  Twp.  H.  S.,  Savanna,  111.,  since 
1920. 

Smith,  Henry  Lester,  Dean  Sch.  of  Ed., 
Ind.  Univ.,  215  E.  gth  St.,  Bloomington, 
Ind. 

Smith,  J.  A.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  921  Renkert 
Bldg.,    Canton,    Ohio. 

Smith,  James  Francis,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Con- 
cord, Vt. 

Smith,  James  H.,  A.  M.  '16,  Univ.  of  Chi- 
cago; Supt.  of  Sch.,  West  H.  S.,  Aurora, 
111.,  since  1923. 

Smith,  Jesse  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  141  S.  2nd 
St.,    Highland   Park,-  111.,   since    1902. 

Smith,  John   L.,   B.   S.   '08,   R.   I.   State   Col.; 

A.  M.    '15,    Brown    Univ.;    Supt.    of    Sch., 
Saylesville,   R.   I.,   since   19 17. 

Smith,  Leon  O.,  B.  A.  '10,  M.  A.  '18,  Univ. 
of  Iowa;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  Hall, 
Omaha,    Nebr.,    since    1919. 

Smith,  Leonard,  A.  B.  '09,  Middlebury;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Morrisville,   Vt.,    since    192^. 

Smith,  Lewis  Wilbur,  A.  B.  '02,  Denison 
Univ.;  A.  M.  '13,  Ph.  D.  '19,  Univ.  of 
Chicago;  Supt.  H.  S.  and  Jr.  Col.,  801 
Buell    Ave.,    Joliet,    111.,    since    19 19. 

Smith,  M.  P.,  B.  A.  '15,  M.  A.  '17,  Univ. 
of  Okla. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Flat  River,  Mo., 
since    1922. 

Smith,  Nelson  C,  M.  L.  '10,  Univ.  of  .Calif. ; 

B.  L.    '01,    Boston    Univ. ;    Supv.    Prin.    of 
Sch.,    135   Woodbridge    PL,   Leonia,    N.    J. 

Smith,   O.   E.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Anoka,   Minn. 

Smith,  Payson,  A.  M.  '03,  Tutts;  LL.  D. 
'08,  Univ.  of  Me.;  '09,  Bates;  Litt.  D. 
'11,  Bowdoin;  State  Com.  of  Ed.,  since 
1916,  Pres.  Dept.  of  Superintendence  1923, 
Boston,  Mass. 

Smith,  Preston  H.,  Ph.  B.  '93,  Colgate; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  651  Broadway,  Bayonne, 
N.   J.,   since   1917. 

Smith,  Raymond  A.,  A.  B.  '00,  A.  M.  '04, 
Butler  Col.;  B.  D.  '05,  Yale;  Dir.  Sch.  of 
Ed.,  Tex.  Christian  Univ.,  Box  78,  T.  C. 
Univ.,    Fort    Worth,    Tex.,    since    1920. 

Smith,  Robert  C,  A.  B.  '05,  A.  M.  '13, 
Univ.  of  Mich.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Macomb, 
111.,   since    1923. 

Smith,  Roy  C,  A.  B.  '06,  Western  Md. ; 
A.  M.  '11,  Univ.  of  Pa.;  Supt  of  Sch., 
Iviorgantown,   W.   Va.,   since   1913. 

Smith,    R.    K.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Dawson,    Pa. 

Smith,  Sim  Joe,  A.  B.  '15,  Trinity  Univ.; 
LL.  B.  '21,  Univ.  of  Tex.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Mineral  Wells,   Tex.,   since   1923. 

Smith,  Thomas  W.,  B.  S.  '08,  Ala.  Poly. 
Inst. ;  Co.  Supt.  of  Ed.,  Court  House, 
Tuscaloosa,    Ala.,    since    1922. 


Smith,  William  Alexander,  A.  B.  '90,  Wil- 
liams; A.  M.  '12,  Columbia;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  348  Passaic  St.,  Hackensack,  N.  J., 
since    1923. 

Smith,  William  F.,  A.  B.  '06,  Ind.  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Central  Sch.  Bldg.,  Elwood, 
Ind.,    since    1923. 

Smith,  William  M.,  Co  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court 
House,    Freehold,    N.    J. 

Smith,  W.  S.,  616  Henry  St.,  Excelsior 
Springs,    Mo. 

Smith,  Z.  Mayo,  A.  B.  '01,  A.  M.  '05,  De- 
Pauw  Univ.;  B.  S.  A.  '19,  Purdue  Univ.; 
State  Dir.  of  Voc.  Ed.,  State  Supvr.  Agri. 
Ed.,  202  Sylvia  St.,  West  Lafayette,  Ind., 
since   1913. 

Smith,  Z.  Merrill,  Supt.  of  Schools,  Green- 
field,   Ind. 

Snyder,    R.    H.,    A.    3.    '12,    Ind.    Univ.;    M. 

A.  '19,    Univ.    of    Chicago;    Supt.    of    Sch., 
Box    476,    Idaho    Falls,    Idaho,    since    1919. 

Snyder,  R.  Lee,  A.  B.  '22,  Okla.  Univ. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  788,  Nowata,  Okla., 
since   1923. 

Solomon,  R.  W.,  Ph.  B.  '14,  Univ.  of  Chi- 
cago; Supt.  of  Sch.,  2201  Linden  Ave., 
Middletown,    Ohio,   since    1917. 

Souers,  R.   E.,   M.   A.   '13,  Univ.  of  Chicago; 

B.  A.    '11,    Miami    Univ.;    Supt.    of    Sch., 
1132    12th   St.,    Douglas,    Ariz.,   since    1916. 

Spain,  Chas.  L.,  A.  B.  '93,  M.  A.  '20,  Ph. 
D.  '23,  Univ.  of  Mich. ;  Dept.  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  1354  Broadway,  Detroit,  Mich.,  since 
1914. 

Spaulding,  Frank  E.,  A.  B.  '89,.  LL.  D.  '20, 
Amherst;  A.  M.,  Ph.  -  D.  '94,  Leipsig; 
A.  M.,  Hon.  '20,  Yale;  Prof,  of  Ed.,  Yale 
Univ.,  68  Cold  Spring  St.,  New  Haven, 
Conn.,   since    1920. 

Speer,  Robert  K.,  Asst.  Dir.  Ref.  and  Res. 
Bd.  of  Ed.,  Montclair,   N.   J. 

Speerbrecher,  Henry,  767  Mineral  St.,  Mil- 
waukee, Wis. 

Spencer,  Dean  S.,  M.  A.  '12,  Univ.  of  Mich.; 
Supt.    of  Sch.,    Monroe,    Mich.,   since    1918. 

Spencer,  P.  R.,  M.  A.  '21,  Columbia;  B.  A. 
'15,  Univ.  of  Wis.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Tech. 
H.    S.,   St.    Cloud,    Minn.,   since   1920. 

Spencer,  Thomas  E.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
911    Locust  St.,   St.   Louis,    Mo. 

Spires,  R.  L.,  B.  Ed.,  '23,  111.  State  Norm. 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Paxton,  111.,  since 
1923. 

Spitler,  H.  Carl,  B.  S.  '17,  N.  W.,  Naper- 
ville,  111.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  602  State  St., 
Petoskey,    Mich.,    since    1923. 

Sporing,  E.  F.,  A.  B.  '20,  Wilmington  Col., 
Ohio;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Newport,  Ky.,  since 
1919. 

Sprague,  H.  A.,  B.  S.,  A.  M.,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  State  Normal,  Mont- 
clair,  N.  J. 

Sprenkle,  William  H.,  B.  S.  '98,  M.  S.  '01, 
Gettysburg;  Supv.  Prin.,  112  Birmingham 
Ave.,    Pittsburgh,    Pa.,    since    1909. 


414 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Srygley,  Hubbard  F.,  B.  S.  '16,  Peabody 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  118%  W.  Martin  St., 
Raleigh,    N.    C,    since    1923. 

Stacy,  Chester  R.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Webster, 
Mass.,    since    1923. 

Stahl,   H.   E.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Claymont,   Del. 

Stailey,    C.    E.,   Supt.   of   Sch.,   Athens,   Ohio. 

Staley,  A.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1131  N.  Den- 
ver   Ave.,    Hastings,     Nebr. 

Staley,  George  R.,  B.  S.  '00,  Syracuse  Univ. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  106  N.  George  St.,  Rome 
N.  Y.,  since  1912. 

Staley,  Raymond    E.,    A.    B.    '12,    St.    John's 

Col. ;  A.    M.    '24,   T.    C,    Columbia    Univ. ; 

Prin.  Beall   H.   and   Elemn.   Sch.,    82    Frost 

Ave.,  Frostburg,    Md.,    since    1920. 

Stanforth,  A.  T.,  Ph.  B.  '11,  Lebanon  Univ.; 
B.  S.  '14,  Muskingum  Univ. ;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  Point  Pleasant  H.  S.,  Point  Pleas- 
ant,  W.   Va.,   since   1920. 

Stansbury,  V.  E.,  A.  B.  '19,  S.  W. ;  A.  M. 
'20,  Univ.  of  Chi.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Mt.  Ver- 
non,  la.,   since    1923. 

Stanton,  B.  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Alliance,  Ohio. 

Stanton,  Mrs.  Marion  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  8 
Woodland  St.,  Worcester,  Mass.,  since 
1922. 

Staples,  Le  Roy  G.,  A.  B.  '00,  Bates  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  Hall,  Warren,  R.  I., 
since   1910. 

Stark,  William  E.,  A.  B.  '95,  A.  M.  '01, 
Harvard;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  35  Seaside  Ave., 
Stamford,    Conn.,    since    1923. 

Starkweather,  J.  A.,  A.  B.  '01,  Shurtleff 
Col.;  A.  M.  '16,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  226  N.  First  Ave.,  E. 
Duluth,    Minn.,   since    19 19. 

Stearns,  P.  J.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lilbourn, 
Mo. 

Stebbins,  W.  C,  1314  University  Ave., 
Grand    Forks,    N.    D. 

Steel,  H.  J.,  5048  Vincent  Ave.,  So.,  Minne- 
apolis,   Minn. 

Steele,  Harold,  B.  S.  '02,  Albion  Col.;  M. 
A.  '08,  Univ.  of  Wis.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  700 
Court    St.,    Saginaw,    Mich.,    since    1920. 

Steen,   W.    O.,   Supt.   of   Sch.,    Topeka,    Kans. 

Steiner,  C.  D.,  B.  S.  '12,  Oh:o  State  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Riley  Twp.  Sch.,  Pandora,  Ohio, 
since   1922. 

Steiner,  Melvin  A.,  B.  A.  '09,  Col.  of 
Wooster,  M.  A.  '13,  Univ.  of  Pittsburgh; 
Supv.  Prin.  of  Sch.,  Ingram,  Pittsburgh, 
Pa.,   since   1918. 

Stephan,  Leon  B.,  A.  B.  '08,  A.  M.  '13,  Ind. 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Jenkins,  Ky.,  since 
1921. 

Stephens,  W.  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Long  Beach, 
Calif: 

Stetson,  Paul  C,  A-  B.  '07,  Kalamazoo,  Col. ; 
A.  B.  '07,  A.  M.  '17,  Univ.  of  Chicago; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  216  Ludlow  Bldg.,  Dayton, 
Ohio,   since   1921. 

Stevens,  Geo.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Kiowa,  Kans. 


Stevens,  James  M.,  B.  A.  '87,  M.  A.  '90, 
Conn.  Wesleyan  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  619 
Wesley  Ave.,  Ocean  City,  N.  J.,  since 
1903. 

Stewart,  David  H.,  B.  S.  '15,  Pa.  State  Col., 
Supvg.  Prin.,  Mcintosh  Bldg.,  Beaver, 
Pa.,    since    1923. 

Stewart,  Paul  E.,  L.  I.  '03,  Peabody  Col.; 
A.  B.  '11,  Stanford  Univ.;  Supt.  of  bch., 
Santa   Barbara,   Calif.,   since   1919. 

Stiers,  John  C,  Ph.  B.  '99,  Ph.  M.  '03, 
Franklin;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Union  Tr.  Bldg., 
Washington,    Pa.,    since   1918. 

Stillwell,  Roy  P.,  7  Fairview  PL,  Morris- 
town,    N.    J. 

Stilwell,  H.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1911  Olive 
St.    Texarkana,    Texas. 

Stilwell,  W.  E.,  A.  B.  '01,  A.  M.  '03,  Har- 
vard; Hdmst.  Univ.  Sch.,  Blair  and  Hart- 
ford Aves.,   Cincinnati,   Ohio,  since   1903. 

Stimson,  Ruf's  W.,  A.  B.  '95.  A.  M.  '96, 
Harvard;  B.  D.  '97,  Yale;  State  Supvr. 
Voc.  Agr.  Ed.,  Garrison  Hall,  Boston, 
Mass.,   since   1911. 

Stitt,  Edward  Walmsley,  M.  S.  '97,  Col.  of 
N.  Y.  City;  Ph.  D.  '24,  Univ.  of  N.  Y. 
City;  LL.  D.  '22,  Dickinson  Col.;  Asso. 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  1543  St.  Nicholas  Ave.,  New 
York,    N.    Y.,    since    1923. 

Stockinger,  W.  A.,  Diploma  '04,  Ind.  State 
Normal;  B.  S.  '16,  M.  A.  '17,  Columbia 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Noblesville,  Ind., 
since    1920. 

Stoddard,  A.  J.,  B.  S.  '22,  Univ.  of  Nebr.; 
M.  A.  '24,  T  C,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,    Bronxville,    N.    Y.,   since   1922. 

Stone,  Charles  R.,  A.  B.  '07,  Oberlin;  Supt. 
of    Sch.,    Munhall,    Penna.,    since    1915. 

Stone,  Charles  T.,  B.  A.  '96,  Bowdoin; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  90  Washington  St.,  Long 
Branch,   N.  J.,  since  1921. 

Stonecipher,  E.  E.,  B.  S.  '20,  State  Tchrs. 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  294,  Sedan,  Kans.. 
since   1922. 

Stoops,  R.  O.,  A.  B.  '97,  Lake  Forest; 
A.  M.  '06,  111.  Col.;  Ph.  D.  Columbia  '22; 
Supt.   of   Sch,    York,    Pa.,   since   1922. 

Storm,  H.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  High  Sch., 
Batavia,     111. 

Stott,  James  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  853  E.  Wal- 
nut   St.,    Frankfort,    Ind. 

Stout,  A.  J.,  B.  S.  '19,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Colum- 
bia Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Topeka,  Kans., 
since    1918. 

Stout,  H.  G.,  A.  B.  '14,  Nebr.  Wes. ;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Ashland,    Nebr.,    since    1924. 

Stover,  James  D.,  A.  M.  '13,  Princeton 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wyoming,  Ohio, 
since    1921. 

Stowe,  A.  Monroe,  A.  M.  '04,  N.  W.  Univ.; 
A.  M.  '05,  Harvard  Univ. ;  Ph.  D.  '09, 
Columbia  Univ. ;  Pres.,  Univ.  of  Toledo, 
1718  Potomac  Drive,  Toledo,  Ohio,  since 
1914. 

Strahan,  Charles  J.,  Dep.  Asst.  Com.  of  Ed., 
State  Office  Bldg.,  Trenton,  N.  J.,  since 
1922.  1 


The  Third  Yearbook 


415 


Stratton,  Mason  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S. 
Bldg.,    Frankfort,    N.    Y.,   since    1922. 

Strayer,  George  D.,  A.  B.  '03,  Johns  Hop- 
kins; Ph.  D.  '05,  Columbia  Univ.;  Prof, 
of  Ed.  Adm..  Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia  Univ., 
New    York,     N.     Y. 

Street,    J.    P.,    Supt.    of   Sch.,    Bedford,    Iowa. 

Striner,  John  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2225  Hamp, 
Quincy,    111. 

Stringer,  S.  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  98, 
Picayune,    Miss. 

Strong,  Solomon  C,  B.  S.  '16,  New  York 
Univ.;  '02,  East  Stroudsburg  State  Nor- 
mal; Supt.  of  Sch.,  West  Orange,  N.  J., 
since    1918. 

Stroup,  F.  Neff,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Newark, 
N.   Y. 

Struble,  J.  Roy,  A.  B.  '15,  Hillsdale  Mich. 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  St.  James,  Minn., 
since   1918. 

Strunk,   L.   H.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,   Desloge,   Mo. 

Stuart,  Josephine  B.,  Asst.  Supt.,  166  Wil- 
liam  St.,    New   Bedford,    Mass. 

Stube,  J.  H.,  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1637 
Kenilworth    Ave.,    Chicago,    111. 

Studebaker,  John  W.,  B.  S.  '10,  Leander 
Clark  Col.;  A.  M.  '17,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  525  Polk  Blvd.,  Des  Moines, 
la.,    since    1920. 

Study,  H.  P.,  A.  B.  '03,  Baker  Univ.;  M. 
A.  '11,  Boston  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H. 
S.    Bldg.,    Springfield,    Mo.,    since    1924. 

Stutsman,  Isaac  E.,  A.  B.  '09,  State  Univ. 
of  la.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  212  Taylor  St., 
Sterling,    Colo.,   since   1924. 

Stutzman,  G.  C,  B.  A.  '17,  Knox  Col.; 
M.  A.  '23,  Univ.  of  la. ;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Hanover,   111.,   since   1923. 

Sullivan,  Ella  C,  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Edge- 
water  Beach  Hotel,  Chicago,  111.,  since 
1900. 

Sutton,  Willis  A.,  Ph.  B.  '03,  B.  LL.  '04, 
Emory  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  Hall, 
Atlanta,    Ga. 

Sutton,  W.  S.,  Dean  Sch.  of  Ed.,  Prof,  of 
Ed.  Admin.,   Univ.   of  Tex.,  Austin,  Tex. 

Swain,  C.  C,  M.  A.  '18,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Pres.  State  Normal  Sch.,  Mayville,  N.  D., 
since    1923. 

Swanson,  Oscar  E.,  A.  M.  '12,  Columbia; 
Diploma  '12,  Tchrs.  Col.;  B.  S..  '11,  North- 
western; B.  S.  '01,  Valparaiso;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    620    Second    St.,    Greenport,    N.    Y., 

since   1920. 

Sweeney,  Ella  L.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  9 
Exchange   Terrace,   Providence,    R.    I. 

Tall,  Lida  Lee,  Prin.  Md.  State  Normal 
Sch.,    Towson,    Md. 

Tallman,  Pearle,  A.  B.  '20,  Iowa  State 
Tcnrs.  Col. ;  Supv.  of  Intermediate  Gr., 
609  Great  So.  Life  Bldg.,  Houston,  Tex., 
since    1923. 

Tanger,  Landis,  M.  Pd.  '03,  State  Normal 
Sen.,  Millersville;  Ph.  B.  '05,  Franklin  & 
Marshall  Col.;  A.  M.  '13,  Univ.  of  Pa.; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Reading,   Pa.,  since   1922. 


Tarney,  J.  Byron,  A.  B.  '02,  Ind.  Univ.; 
M.  A.  '11,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Goffstown,    N.    H.,    since    1923. 

Tate,    A.    R.,    Supt.    of   Sch.,    Onaway,    Mich. 

Taubeneck,  I.  D.,  B.  E.  '21,  111.  State  Nor- 
mal Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Minier,  111., 
since    1920. 

Taylor,  James  F.,  A.  B.  '09,  A.  M.  '13,  Ind. 
Univ.;  Prin.  Denfeld  H.  S.,  708  N.  igth 
Ave.,    E.,    Duluth,    Minn.,   since    1918. 

Taylor,  M.  S.,  A.  M.  '12,  Pacific  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  North  Bend,  Ore.,  since 
1923. 

Taylor,  William  S.,  B.  S.  '12,  Univ.  of  Ky. ; 
M.  S.  '13,  Univ.  of  Wis.;  Ph.  D.  '24, 
Columbia  Univ. ;  Dean  Col.  of  Ed.  Univ. 
of  Ky.,   Lexington,    Ky.,   since    1923. 

Teach,  Charles  Elden,  A.  B.  '03,  A.  M.  '14, 
Univ.  of  Nebr. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  Hall, 
Bakersfield,    Calif.,    since    1918. 

Teague,  C.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Gladstone, 
Mich. 

Temple,  Alice,  Ph.  B.  '08,  Univ.  of  Chicago; 
Asst.  Prof.,  Sch.  of  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Chicago, 
Chicago,   111.,   since    1909. 

Terhune,  Beekman  R.,  A.  B.  '01,  Princeton; 
A.  M.  '02,  Columbia;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Somerset  Sch.,  Plainfield,  N.  J.,  since 
1923. 

Terrell,  M.  C,  A.  B.  '21,  Elau  Col.;  Co. 
Supt.    of  Sch.,    Graham,    N.    C. 

Thalman,  J.  L.,  A.  B.  '00,  Ohio  Wes. ;  A.  M. 
'10,  Univ.  of  Mich.;  Supt.  Proviso  H.  S., 
Maywood,    111. 

Thalman,  John  W.,  A.  B.  '00.  Ohio  Wes- 
leyan  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Library  Bldg., 
St.  Joseph,   Mo.,  since  1920. 

Thames,  W.  I.,  A.  B.  '87,  National  Normal 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hattiesburg,  Miss., 
since    1922. 

Theiseh,  W.  W.,  B.  S.  '07,  Univ.  of  Nebr.; 
A.  M.  '15,  Ph.  D.  '16,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Asst.    Supt.    of    Sch.,    Milwaukee,    Wis. 

Thierstein,  John  R.,  A.  B.  '96,  Univ.  of 
Kans. ;  Ph.  D.  'io,  Univ.  of  Berne;  Prof. 
of  Ed.,  Bethel  Col.,  Newton,  Kans.,  since 
1921. 

Thomas,  A.  D.,  A.  B.  '05,  Lafayette;  M.  A. 
'18,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  585  James  St.,  Hazleton,  Pa.,  since 
1922. 

Thomas,  Augustus  O.,  State  Com.  of  Ed., 
State    House,    Augusta,    Maine. 

Thomas,  H.  W.,  A.  B.  '15,  Univ.  of  Roches- 
ter; Supt.  of  Sch.,  Johnson,  Vt.,  since 
1921. 

Thomas,  J.  O.,  B.  S.  '09,  Ohio  Northern 
Univ.;  Ph.  B.  '20,  Chicago  Univ.;  A.  M. 
'21,  Stanford  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  519 
W.   Cherry  St.,  Flagstaff,  Ariz.,  since  1921. 

Thomas,  Lewis  Ambrey,  B.  A.  '21,  Univ.  of 
Idaho;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  77,  Malad  City, 
Idaho,    since    1924. 

Thomas,  Malcolm  G.,  A.  B.  '98,  A.  M.  '02, 
Union;  Supvg.  Prin.  of  Sch.,  Woodbury 
H.    S.,    Woodbury,    N.    J.,    since    1914. 


416 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Thomas,  W.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  722  Cherry 
St.,   Springfield,   Mo. 

Thompson,  Alfred  C,  B.  A.  '92,  Yale;  Ph. 
D.  '13,  N.  Y.  State  Col.  for  Tchrs. ;  Prin. 
State  Normal  Sch.,  Brockport,  N.  Y., 
since    1910. 

Thompson,  Clem  O.,  A.  B.  '13,  Ind.  State 
Normal;  A.  M.  '20,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Hd. 
Dept.  of  Ed.,  Earlham  Col.,  306  College 
Ave.,    Richmond,    Ind.,    since    1923. 

Thompson,  Fred  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Horton, 
Kans. 

Thompson,  G.  E.,  A.  B.  '15,  Defiance  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,   St.   Charles,   111.,   since   1919. 

Thompson,  R.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  102  N. 
High,    Tuscumbia,    Ala. 

Thompson,  W.  O.,  A.  B.  '78,  Muskingum 
Col. ;  Pres.  Ohio  State  Univ.,  Columbus, 
Ohio,   since    1899. 

Thoroman,  A.   M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,   Iola,   Kans. 

Threlkeld,  A.  L.,  B.  Pd.  'n,  Kirksville  State 

Normal;    B.    S.    '19,    Univ.    of    Mo.;  Asst. 

Supt.   of  Sch.,    Commonwealth   Bldg.,  Den- 
ver,   Colo. 

Tibbetts,  Keim  K.,  A.  B.  '10,  Oberlin ;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Box  P,  Gilbert,  Minn.,  since 
igi8. 

Tidball,  Lewis  C,  Jr.,  State  Com.  of  Ed., 
Cheyenne,   Wyo. 

Tidwell,  R.  E.,  State  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Mont- 
gomery,   Ala. 

Tiefenthaler,  G.  E.,  829  26th  St.,  Milwaukee, 
Wis. 

Tiffany,  A.  R.,  B.  A.  '15,  Upper  Iowa;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,   Cresco,   Iowa,  since   1921. 

Tighe,  Richard  J.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Muskogee, 
Okla. 

Tiley,  Pearl  M.,  Prim.  Supvr.,  3105  W.  Main 
St.,    Belleville,   111.,   since   1911. 

Tilley,  James  M.,  '89,  Normal  Diploma; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  since 
1919. 

Timberman,  J.  C,  B.  S.  '02,  Ohio  Northern; 
Ph.  B.  '06,  Ohio  Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
422  E.  Broadway,  Wellston,  Ohio,  since 
1922. 

Tinker,  B.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  98  Randolph 
Ave.,    Waterbury,    Conn. 

Tipcan,  John  J.,  A.  B.  '22,  Geo.  Wash. 
Univ.;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  207  Maryland 
Ave.,    Cumberland,    Md.,    since    1915. 

Tireman,  L.  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Postville, 
Iowa. 

Tirey,  Ralph  N.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  507  N. 
Meridian,     Bloomington,    Ind. 

Tiss,  A.  I.,  A.  B.  '10,  Drake  Univ.;  M.  A. 
'19,  State  Univ.  of  Iowa;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Fort   Madison,   Iowa,   since    1920. 

Titsworth,  Paul  E.,  Ph.  D.  '11,  Univ.  of 
Wis.;  Ph.  B.  '04,  Alfred  Univ.;  Pres. 
Wash.  Col.,  400  Wash.  Ave.,  Chestertown, 
Md.,  since   1923. 


Toaz,  Robert  K.,  A.  B.  '93,  Rochester; 
A.  M.  '12,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Huntington,  N.  Y., 
since    1906. 

Tobey,  S.  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wausau,  Wis., 
since    1905. 

Tomlinson,  Charles  W.,  B.  A.  '16,  N.  W. 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Aurora,  Minn.,  since 
.1923- 

Tompkins,  Jonas  M.,  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
587    Windsor   Ave.,    Hartford,    Conn. 

Torreyson,  B.  W.,  Pres.  State  Normal  Sch., 
Conway,   Ark. 

Towle,  Clifton  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  49  High 
St.,    Exeter,    N.    H. 

Towle,    L.   U.,    Supt.   of  Sch.,   Detroit,    Minn. 

Towne,  R.   H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Glencoe,   Minn. 

Townsend,  M.  Ernest,  B.  A.  '12,  M.  A.  '22, 
Colgate  Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lathrop 
Ave.    Bldg.,    Millville,    N.   J.,   since    1921. 

Trabue,  M.  R.,  B.  A.  'n,  N.  W.  Univ.; 
M.  A.  '14,  Ph.  D.  '15,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Prof,  of  Ed.  Admin.,  Univ.  of  N.  C,  P.  O. 
Box  431,   Chapel  Hill,   N.   C,   since  1922. 

Tracy,  Aaron  W.,  A.  B.  '19,  Brigham  Young 
Univ. ;  Pres.  Weber  Col.,  2445  Jefferson 
Ave.,    Ogden,    Utah,    since    1922. 

Transchel,  Milton  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  337  East 
nth   St.,    College   View,    Nebr. 

Travell,  Ira  Winthrop,  B.  A.  '90,  Williams; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Ridgewood,  N.  J.,  since 
1912. 

Travis,  Martin  B.,  B.  Pd.  '06,  Mich.  Normal 
Col.;  A.  B.  '09,  A.  M.  '10,  Univ.  of 
Mich.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  212  E..  B  St.,  Iron 
Mountain,    Mich.,   since   1917. 

Trent,  William  Woodson,  A.  B.  '12.  W.  Va, 
Univ.;  A.  M.  '21,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Elkins,  W.   Va.,   since   1915- 

Trescott,  E.  O.  Ph.  B.  '91,  Hiram  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  125  Highland  Ave.,  Ra- 
venna,   Ohio,   since   1906. 

Trester,  Arthur  L.,  A.  B.  '04,  Earlham  Col. ; 
A.  M.  '13,  Columbia  Univ.;  Sec.  Ind.  H. 
S.  Athletic  Assn.,  Anderson,  Ind.,  since 
1922. 

Trinder,  F.  J.,  State  Dir.  Voc.  Ed.,  Capitol, 
Hartford,    Conn. 

True,  J.  A.,  A.  B.  '18,  Univ.  of  Nebr.; 
M.  A.  '22,  Chicago  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
McCook,    Nebr.,    since    1918. 

Trumpsr,  May,  State  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins., 
Helena,    Mont. 

Truscott,  R.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Loveland, 
Colo. 

Tuggle,  Larkin  A.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court 
House,   Danville,   111.,   since   1923. 

Tupper,  C.  R.,  A.  B.  '13,  A.  M.  '23,  Stan- 
ford; Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O.  Box  1689, 
Miami,  Ariz.,  since  1919. 

Turner,  H.  B.,  A.  B.  '03,  Hiram  Col.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.;  307  Western  Reserve  Bank  Bldg., 
Warren,    Ohio,   since   1916. 


Titus,   Carl,   Supt.  of  Sch.,   Cheboygan,   Mich.        Turner,  J.   E.,   Supt.  of  Sch.,  Payette,  Idaho. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


417 


Turner,  J.  W.,  A.  B.  '18,  Phillips;  Pres. 
S.  W.  State  Tchrs.  Col. ;  Weatherford, 
Okla.,    since    1923. 

Turnmire,  H.  U.  G.,  B.  S.  '21,  Kirksville 
St.  Tchrs.  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bowling 
Green,    Mo.,    since    1923. 

Twente,  John  W.,  A.  M.  '16,  Univ.  of  Kans. ; 
A.  M.  '22,  Ph.  D.  '23,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Hd.  Ed.  and  Psycho.,  Univ.  of  N.  H., 
Durham,  N.   H.,  since   1922. 

Tyler,  Leon  Lewis,  LL.  B.  '00,  Univ.  of 
Mich. ;  A.  B.  '06,  Earlham  Col. ;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  Muskegon  Heights,  Mich.,  since 
1920. 

Ueland,  Elsa,  Pres.  Carson  Col.  Orph.  Girls, 
Flourtown,  Pa. 

Underwood,  C.  C,  Ph.  B.  '07,  M.  A.  'io, 
Kenyon  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  13  Mills 
Place,    Crawfordsville,    Ind.,    since    1923. 

Underwood,  S.  B.,  A.  B.  '06,  Trinity; 
Teachers'  Training  Sch.,  Greenville,  N.  C, 
since    1921. 

Updegraff,  Harlan,  Ph.  B.  '94,  Iowa  Cornell 
Col.;  A.  M.  '98,  Ph.  D.  '08,  Columbia 
Univ. ;  Pres.  Cornell  Col.,  Mt.  Vernon, 
Iowa. 

Updyke,  A.  H,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court 
House,    Jersey    City,    N.    J. 

Uthoff,  Mary  L.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Prince- 
ton,  111.,  since   1923. 

Utne,  Theodore,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Alexandria, 
Minn. 

Van  Adestine,  Gertrude,  Prin.  Sch.  for  Deaf, 
5759   Second    Blvd.,    Detroit,    Mich. 

Van  Buskirk,  D.  A.,  Diploma  '12,  Mich. 
West  State  Normal;  A.  B.  '16,  Univ.  of 
Mich.;    Supt.    of   Sch.,    Hastings,    Mich. 

Vanderbilt,  Mabel  Tilden,  A.  B.  '01,  Vassar 
Col.;  Supvg.  Prin.,  36  University  PL, 
Princeton,   N.   J.,  since   1914. 

Vanderslice,  H.  R.,  A.  B.  '15,  Ursinus  Col.; 
Supt.   of  Sch.,   Coatesville,   Pa.,   since    1922. 

Van  Devender,  Bertha  K.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Basin,    Wyo. 

Vandyke,  John  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  P.  O. 
Box     170,     Coleraine,    Minn. 

Vann,  Leonard  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bessemer, 
Ala. 

Van  Riper,  Paul,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  330  N. 
Merdian,    Lebanon,    Ind. 

Van  Voorhis  S.,  B.  A.  '09,  Huron  Col.; 
Supt.    of   Sch.,    Redfield,   S.    D. 

Varney,  Charles  E.,  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Hyde    Bldg.,    Lee,    Mass.,    since    1922. 

Vasey,  Frank  T.,  A.  B.  '04,  Univ.  of  Nebr. ; 
A.  M.  '18,  Univ.  of  Iowa;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Mason   City,   Iowa,   since   1918. 

Vaughan,  James  P.,  Ph.  B.  '07,  Univ.  of 
Wis.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.,  Chisholm, 
Minn.,    since    1907. 

Vautsmier,  Lydia,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Elmhurst, 
111. 

Vernon,  C.  B.,  A.  B.  '14,  Baker  Univ.; 
A.  M.  '20,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,   Vinton,    Iowa,   since    1923. 


Verplanck,  Fred  A.,  B.  A.  '88,  Yale;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  1108  Main  St.,  So.  Manchester, 
Conn.,   since    1893. 

Vevle,  Mendus  R.,  B.  A.  '14,  St.  Olaf  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Hutchinson, 
Minn.,  since   1922. 

Vieth,  A.  A.,  B.  S.  '12,  N.  W.  Col.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Merrill,  Wis.,  since 
1924. 

Vigor,   Charles   F.,   Asst.   Supt.,    Mobile,   Ala. 

Vincent,  P.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  210  Pine, 
Stevens   Point,   Wis. 

Vizcarrondo,  Francisco,  LL.  B.  '17,  Univ.  of 
P.  R. ;  Chief  Div.  of  Supvsn.,  Sec.  Dept. 
of   Ed.,   San  Juan,   Porto   Rico,   since   1918. 

Vliet,    Clarence,    Birmingham,    Mich. 

Vogle,  William  F.,  A.  B.  '12,  Ind.  Univ.; 
A.  M.  '17,  Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Supt.    of   Sch.,    Boonville,   Ind.,   since   1918. 

Von  Klein  Smid,  Rufus  B.,  A.  B.  '05,  A.  M. 
'06,  Northwestern;  Sc.  D.  '14,  Univ.  of 
Ariz.;  J.  D.  '19,  Nat.  Univ.  of  Mex. ; 
M.  D.  '20,  Univ.  Central  Quinto,  Ecuador; 
Ph.  D.,  Univ.  of  Major,  San  Marcos, 
Peru;  Pres.  Univ.  of  Southern  Calif.,  Los 
Angeles,   Calif.,   since   1921. 

Voorhees,  J.  V.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Eveleth, 
Minn. 

Waddell,  John  F.,  Ph.  B.  '20,  Wis.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  400  Clermont,  Antigo,  Wis.,  since 
ig22. 

Wade,  Charles  D.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  334, 
Albany,   Ala. 

Wade,  Edwin  C,  A.  B.  '07,  Hampden-Sid- 
ney  Col.;  A.  M.  '11,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  H.  S.  Bldg.,  Bluefield, 
W.   Va.,   since   1923. 

Wagenvoord,  Alice  M.,  B.  S.  '16,  M.  A.  '21, 
Columbia  Univ.;  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lans- 
ing,. Mich.,    since    1917. 

Wager,  Lewis  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Lincoln 
Sch.,    North   Tiverton,   R.   I.,   since   1919. 

Wagner,  Charles  A.,  A.  B.  '06,  A.  M.  '08, 
Ursinus;  Ph.  D.  '12,  Univ.  of  Penna. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  526  E.  14th  St.,  Chester, 
Pa.,    since    1917. 

Wahlert,  Herman  H,  B.  S.  '15,  Wash.  Squ. 
Col.;  M.  A.  '16,  N.  Y.  Univ.;  Asst.  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Prin.  Lincoln  Sch.,  North  Bergen, 
N.    J. 

Waite,  E.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Manitowoc, 
Wis. 

Waits,  H.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  103  E.  Pere 
Marquette,   Ludington,   Mich. 

Waldo,  D.  B.,  Ph.  B.  '87,  A.  M.  'qo,  Al'iion 
Col.;  LL.  D.  '10,  Kalamazoo  Col.;  Pres. 
Western  State  Normal  Sch.,  Kalamazoo, 
Mich. 

Walker,  Johnston  E.,  B.  Ct.  '20,  U.  of  N.  D. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bottineau,  N.  D.,  since  1921. 

Walker,  Knox,  A.  B.  '15,  Mercer  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,   Carrollton,  Ga.,  since  1922. 

Wallace,  S.  C,  Asst.  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  428 
Oakland  Ave.,  Greensburg,  Pa.,  since 
I9I5- 

Wallace,  S.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  6th  &  Wash. 
Sts.,    Waterloo,   Iowa. 


418 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Waller,  J.  C,  A.  B.  '07,  Georgetown  Col.; 
A.  B.  '08,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  A.  M.  '14. 
Tchrs.  Col.,  Columbia;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Hop- 
kinsville,   Ky.,  since   19 18. 

Walling,  W.  Levern,  A.  B.  '14,  Univ.  of 
Mich.;  A.  B.  '07,  Mich.  State  Normal 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  17453  Jefferson  Ave., 
E.   Grosse  Pointe,   Mich.,  since  1921. 

Walls,  William  Alfred,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  A.  B. 
'07,  Mt.  Union  Col.;  A.  M.  '13,  Columbia 
Univ.;  52g  W.  Main  St.,  Kent,  Ohio,  since 
1920. 

Walters,  Rolland  J.  D.,  A.  B.  '04,  Tri  State 
Col.;  A.  M.  '14,  T.  C,  Columbia  Univ.; 
D.  Litt.  '20,  Univ.  of  Denver;  Dir.  Tchr. 
Tr.  Univ.  of  Denver,  2045  So.  Clarkson 
St.,   Denver,    Colo.,   since   1924. 

Walters,  W.  F.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court 
House,    Columbia,    N.    C,    since    1920. 

Waltner,  Caroline  A.,  A.  B.  '16,  Yankton 
Col.;  B.  S.  '17,  S.  D.  State  Col.;  Co.  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Freeman,  S.   D.,  since  1920 

Walton,  C.  E.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  90  Lincoln 
Ave.,   Little   Falls,   N.   J. 

Walton,   E.  V.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Roselle,   N.  J. 

Walton,  Joseph  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  210  W. 
8th,    Leadville,    Colo. 

Waltz,   C.   A.    Supt.   of  Sch.,   Xenia,   Ohio. 

Walvoord,  J.  G.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1809  N.  5th 
Sheboygan,   Wis. 

Ward,  David  A.,  B.  S.  '04,  Rio  Grande  Col. ; 
A.  M.  '11,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
City    Hall,    Wilmington,    Del.,    since    1921. 

Ward,  L.  C,  A.  B.  '03,  Ind.  Univ.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Montgomery  and  Clinton  Sts., 
Fort  Wayne,   Ind.,  since   1920. 

Ward,  W.  Scott,  A.  B.  '83,  Tufts;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  73  Green  St.,  Athol,  Mass.,  since 
1897. 

Wardlaw,  Patterson,  A.  B.  '80,  LL.  D.  '06, 
Erskine;  Litt.  D.  '24,  Presby.  Col.  of  S.  C. ; 
Dean  Sch.  of  Ed.,  Univ.  of  S.  C,  1214 
College  St.,  Columbia,  S.   C,  since  1894. 

Warner,  Stanley  F.,  A.  B.  '19,  Syracuse 
Univ.;    Seneca   Falls,    N.   Y. 

Warner,  W.  W.,  Diploma  '84,  Valparaiso 
Univ.;  Diploma  '01,  Drexel  Inst.;  Supt. 
of   Sch.,    Saginaw,    Mich.,   since    1917- 

Warren,  F.  H.,  A.  B.  '96,  Ohio  Wes. ;   Supt. 

of   Sch.,    843    N.    Main   St.,   Fostoria,    Ohio, 

since    1917. 

Warren,   Jule   B.,  Box   887,   Raleigh,    N.    C. 

Warren,  Julius  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Glovers- 
ville,   N.   Y. 

Warren,  Milton  Charles,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Circleville,    Ohio. 

Warren,  Worcester,  A.  B.  '12,  Knox  Col.; 
A.  M.  '21,  Univ  of  Iowa.;  Asst.  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  Bd.  of  Ed.,  886  Main  St.,  Bridge- 
port,   Conn.,   since   1924. 

Washburn.  Justin,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Rock 
Island,   111. 

Washburne,  C.  W.,  Ed.  D.  '22,  Univ.  of 
Calif.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Winnetka,  111.,  since 
1919. 

Waterman,  O.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Naperville, 
111. 


Watkin,  Earl  P.,  Ph.  B.  '12,  Ph.  M.  '17, 
Hamilton  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Ilion  H.  S., 
Ilion,   N.   Y.,  since   1923. 

Watkins,  Richard  Henry,  B.  A.  '95,  Hamp- 
den-Sidney;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Laurel,  Miss., 
since    1907. 

Watson,.  Frank  K.,  A.  M.  '99,  Princeton; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  20  West  St.,  Danbury, 
Conn.,   since    1920. 

Watson,  J.  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  401  2nd  Ave., 
Opelika,  Ala. 

Watts,  Charles  H.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  513 
W.    Oregon   St.,   Urbana,   111. 

Weaver,  E.  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Clarinda,  Iowa. 

Weaver,  Olney  S.,  B.  S.  '21,  Miami  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Germantown,  Ohio,  since 
1921. 

Webb,  Edward  F.,  A.  B.  '97,  A.  M.  '00, 
Wash.  Col. ;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Cumber- 
land,   Md.,   since   1916. 

Webb,  F.  E.,  B.  A.  'n,  Bellevue  Col.;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Box  2349,  Globe,  Ariz.,  since 
1923. 

Webb,  Jesse  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Portland, 
Ind. 

Webber,  Elmer  Harrison,  B.  Pd.  '15,  Univ. 
of  Me. ;  M.  A.  '23,  Bates  Col. ;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,    Mapleton,    Me.,    since    1918. 

Weber,  S.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Charleston, 
W.   Va. 

Webster,  William  F.,  B.  A.  '86,  Univ.  of 
Minn.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  305  City  Hall, 
Minneapolis,    Minn.,   since    1922. 

Weed,    Clarence    M.,  D.    Sc.    '91,    Ohio    State 

Univ.;    M.   Sc.   '84,  B.   Sc.   '83,   Mich.   Agri. 

'  Col.;  Prin.  State  Normal  Sch.,  Lowell, 
Mass.,   since   1921. 

Weet,  Herbert  S.,  B.  A.  '99,  M.  A.  '01, 
Univ.  of  Rochester;  Pd.  D.  '18,  N.  * . 
State  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
since  191 1. 

Weglein,  David  E.,  Ph.  D.  '16,  A.  B.  '97, 
Johns  Hopkins  Univ.;  A.  M.  '12,  Columbia 
Univ.;  First  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Balti- 
more,   Md.,   since   1921. 

Weinlander,  M.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Chassell, 
Mich. 

Welden,  C.  R.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Wetumpka, 
Ala.,   since   1923. 

Welles,  James  B.,  A.  B.  '09,  Union  Col.; 
A.  M.  '13,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Roslyn,    N.   Y.,  since   1920. 

Wellman,  Florence  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Brat- 
tleboro,   Vt.,   since   1908. 

Wellman,  Justin  O.,  A.  B.  '98,  A.  M.  '22, 
Colby;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  11  Congress  St., 
Amesbury,    Mass.,   since   1921. 

Wells,  Agnes  Ermina,  A.  B.  '03,  Ph.  D.  '24, 
Univ.  of  Mich.;  A.  M.  '16,  Carleton  Col.; 
Dean  of  Women,  Ind.  Univ.,  Bloomington, 
Ind.,  since   1918. 

Wells,  Geo.  K.,  1106  E.  62nd  St.,  Chicago, 
111. 

Wenner,  William  E.,  A.  B.  '97,  Westmin- 
ster; Supt.  of  Sch.,  1  Lake  St.,  Ashtabula, 
Ohio,  since   1909. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


419 


Werman,  Mervin  J.,  A.  B.  '03,  A.  M.  '07, 
Muhlenberg  Col.;  Supt.  of  Co.  Sen.,  R. 
F.  D.  3,  Allentown,  Pa.,  since  19 18. 

Werner,  J.  C,  A.  B.  'io,  F.  &  M.  Col.; 
Supvg.  Prin.,  410  Ferree  St.,  Coropolis, 
Pa.,  since   1921. 

Werner,   Oscar   H.,   Supt.   of  Sch.,  A.   B.  '10, 

Central     Wesleyan ;     A.     M.     '12,     N.  W. 

Univ.;    Ph.    D.    '17,    Columbia    Univ.;  402 
S.   Bluff,   Anthony,   Kans.,   since   1920. 

Wessa,  Alice,  B.  S.  '12,  Tchrs.  Col.;  Diploma 
Columbia  Univ. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Kenil- 
worth,   111.,   since   1918. 

West,  Henry  S.,  A.  B.  '93,  Ph.  D.  '99,  Johns 
Hopkins;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Sch.  Admin.  Bldg., 
Baltimore,    Md.,    since    1920. 

West,  Nathaniel  G.,  223  Warwick  Ave., 
Rochester,   N.   Y. 

West,  Roscoe  L.,  Dir.  Elem.  Ed.,  Admin. 
Bldg.,  Trenton,   N.  J. 

Wetherow,  E.  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  113, 
La   Porte,   Ind.,   since    1922. 

Wheeler,  Carlon  E.,  A.  B.  'pi,  Bates;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  No.  Easton,  Mass.,  since  1918. 

Wheeler,  George,  B.  S.  '05,  Temple  Univ. ; 
Asso.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  no  E.  Gorgas  Lane, 
Philadelphia,    Pa.,   since    1906. 

Wheeler,  Ulysses  G.,  A.  B.  '87,  A.  M.  'oo, 
Bates;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Newtonville,  Mass., 
since  1914. 

Wheelock,  Arthur  N.,  A.  M.  '81,  Univ.  of 
Vermont;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  569,  River- 
side,   Calif.,   since    1907. 

Wherry,  J.  Elwood,  A.  B.  '01,  A.  M.  '04, 
Grove  City  Col.;  Asst.  Co.  Supt.,  209  Va. 
Ave.,    Aspinwall,    Pa.,    since  ^1916. 

White,  Carroll  H.,  B.  S.  '96,  Dartmouth? 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  25  Richardson  St.,  Barre, 
Vt.,   since   1914. 

White,  Edna  N.,  A.  B.  '06,  Univ.  of  111.; 
Dir.  Merrill  Palmer  Sch.,  71  E.  Ferry  Ave., 
Detroit,    Mich.,    since    1920. 

White,  F.  U.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  504  W.  Div.  St., 
Galva,  111. 

White,  James  Asa,  A.  B.  '13,  A.  M.  '14, 
Univ.  of  Louisville,  Ky. ;  Th.  M.  '14,  Th. 
D.  '15,  So.  Bap.  Theo.  Sem. ;  Pres.  Colo. 
Woman's  Col.,  17th  &  Poplar  Sts.,  Den- 
ver,  Colo.,  since   1923. 

White,  Richardson  D.,  A.  B.  '93,  Hampden- 
Sidney  Col.;  LL.  B.  '00,  Wash  Univ.; 
Supt.   of   Sch.,    Glendale,    Calif.,   since   1913. 

White,  Winton  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  82  Knick- 
erbocker Rd.,   Englewood,   N.  J. 

Whitman,  George  E.,  B.  A.  '10,  Ohio  Wes. 
Univ.;  Dir.  of  Attend.,  Census,  and  Voc. 
Guid.,  421  Rockwell  Ave.,  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
since    1923. 

Whitman,  Willard  M.,  A.  B.  '09,  Harvard; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Drawer  1035,  Marquette, 
Mich.,   since   1920. 

Whitmer,  J.  W.,  Ph.  B.  '15,  Wooster  Col.; 
Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court  House,  Toledo, 
Ohio,   since   1915. 

Whitney,  A.  S.,  A.  B.  '85,  Univ.  of  Mich.; 
LL.  D.  '21,  Univ.  of  Syracuse;  Dean  Sch. 
of  Ed.,  930  Church  St.,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich., 
since   1921. 


Whitney,  Eddy  R.,  A.  B.  '89,  M.  S.  '93, 
Hamilton  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  106  Glen- 
wood  Blvd.,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  since 
1918. 

Whitney,  Fairfield,  A.  M.  '92,  Bales  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  548  Broadway,  Everett, 
Mass.,    since    1910. 

Whittier,  John  D.,  Union  Supt.  of  Sch.,  So. 
Hamilton,    Mass.,    since    1923. 

Wiedman,  D.  E.,  A.  B.  '14,  Colo.  Tchrs.  Col., 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  229  Mason  Bldg.,  Belling- 
ham,   Wash.,   since    1920. 

Wight,  Ambrose  B.,  A.  B.  '95,  M.  A.  '14 
Alma;  B.  Pd.  '19,  I.  S.  N.  U. ;  Asst.  Supt. 
Sch.,  400  So.  State  St.,  Chicago,  111., 
since    1919. 

Wilber,  H.  Z.,  A.  B.  '08,  Mich.  State  Nor- 
mal Col.;  A.  B.  '10,  A.  M.  'n,  Univ.  of 
Mich.;  Prof,  of  Ed.,  State  Normal  Col., 
Ypsilanti,    Mich.,   since   1921. 

Wilde,  Arthur  Herbert,  Ph.  D.  '01,  Harvard; 
Dean  Sch.  of  Ed.,  Boston  Univ.,  125  Fair 
Oaks   Park,    Needham,    Mass.,   since    1918. 

Wiley,  F.  L.,  A.  M.  '09,  T.  C,  Columbia 
Univ.;  A.  B.,  B.  S.  '05,  Univ.  of  Mo.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Cleveland  Heights,  Ohio, 
since   1923. 

Wiley,  George  M.,  Asst.  State  Com.  of  Ed., 
Albany,    N.    Y. 

Wilkinson,  Thomas  G.,  Supt.  of  Sch,,  Eu- 
faula,   Ala. 

Willard,  F.  E.,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Central 
Bldg.,   Seattle,  Wash. 

Willard,  W.  A.  L.,  B.  S.  '23,  Mich.  Agr. 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  35  Tolan  St.,  Milan, 
Mich.,   since   1923. 

Williams,  D.  S.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Bozeman, 
Mont. 

Williams,  L.  E.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Rumford, 
Maine. 

Williams,  M.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  1138  Lin- 
coln   Rd.,    Columbus,    Ohio. 

Williams,  R.  C,  Ph.  B.  '14,  Central  Col.; 
Supt.    of   Sch.,    Jesup,    Iowa,    since    1921. 

Williams,  R.  M.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Driver,  Va., 
since   1921. 

Williams,  Thomas  C,  B.  S.  '15,  Va.  Mil. 
Inst.;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Box  132,  Chester, 
Va.,   since   1921. 

Williams,  W.  C,  B.  A.  '96,  Supt.  of  Sch., 
City    Hall,    Greenwood,    Miss.,    since    1920. 

Williamson,  Pauline  Brooks,  B.  S.  '18, 
Columbia  Univ. ;  State  Rural  Supvr., 
Health  Work,  State  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Rich- 
mond,  Va.,   since    1922. 

Willingham,  Henry  J.,  A.  B.  '91,  A.  M. 
'94,  LL.  D.  'n,  Howard  Col.;  Pres.  State 
Normal  Sch.,   Florence,  Ala.,  since   1913. 

Willis,  H.  Brewster,  M.  A.  '17,  Univ.  of 
N.  J.;  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Co.  Record  Bldg., 
New   Brunswick,   N.   J.,   since   1887. 

Willis,  W.  Spader,  A.  B.  '86,  Rutger's  Univ.; 
Prin.  of  State  Normal  Sch.,  217  Belleville 
Ave.,    Newark,   N.   J.,  since   1911. 

Willman,  Edward  J.,  A.  B.  '18,  A.  M.  '24, 
Univ.  of  Mich.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  919  N. 
Wash.    St.,    Owosso,    Mich.,    since    1921. 


420 


Department  of  Superintendence 


Willsey,  Elsie  Mae,  Ph.  B.  '13,  Univ.  of 
Chicago;  Gen.  Supt.  of  Home  Economics, 
Dept.  of  Ed.,  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  since 
1919. 

Wilmot,  Harry  L.,  Asst.  Dir.  Exten.  Dept., 
State    Normal,    Indiana,    Pa. 

Wilson,   Bert,   Eureka   Col.,   Eureka,   111. 

Wilson,  Charles  L.,  A.  B.  'gg,  A.  M.  '07, 
Marietta  Col.;  A.  M.  '17,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Kenmawr  Ave.,   Rankin,   Pa. 

Wilson,  Clara,  Co.  Supt  of  Sch.,  Fairmont, 
W.  Va. 

Wilson,    Mrs.    E.    B.,   Jefferson,   Iowa. 

Wilson,  Guy  C,  i04g  S.  10th,  East,  Salt  Lake 
City,   Utah. 

Wilson,  Harry  Bruce,  A.  B.  '05,  Ind.  Univ.; 
M.  A.  '10,  Columbia  Univ.;  LL.  D.  '17, 
Washburn  Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  2133  All- 
ston  Way,   Berkeley,    Calif.,   since    igi8. 

Wilson,  John  R.,  B.  S.  '13,  Columbia;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Paterson,  N.  J.,  since  1906. 

Wilson,  Lucy  L.  W.,  Ph.  D.  '97,  Univ.  of  Pa.; 
Prin.  So.  Phila.  H.  S.,  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
since   1916. 

Wilson,  Melvin,  B.  S.  '14,  M.  S.  '24,  Univ. 
of  Utah;  Supt.  of  Nebo.  Sch.  Dist.,  Span- 
ish Fork,   Utah,  since   1924. 

Wilson,  Otis  G.,  A.  B.  '07,  A.  M.  '11,  W. 
Va.  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Fairmont,  W. 
Va.,  since  igis. 

Winans,  B.  A.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  230  So.  Sixth 
St.,    Livingston,    Mont. 

Wineland,  M.  B.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,   nog  Second 

St.,   Juniata,   Pa. 
Winn,    G.     B.,    Supt.    of    Sch.,    Waxahachie, 

Tex. 

Winship,  A.  E.,  Ed.  Journal  of  Ed.,  6 
Beacon    St.,    Boston,    Mass. 

Winslow,  Issac  O.,  A.  B.  '78,  A.  M.  '81, 
Brown  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  9  Exchange 
Terrace,    Providence,    R.    I.,   since    1913. 

Winstrom,  J.  Harry,  A.  B.  '16,  Nebr.  Univ.; 
M.  A.  '23,  Iowa  State  Univ.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  Leland  Office  Bldg.,  Springfield,  111., 
since  ig23. 

Wirsig,  O.  A.,  A.  B.  '14,  Univ.  of  Nebr., 
A.  M.  '24,  Columbia  Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch., 
Kearney,    Nebr.,    since    ig2i. 

Wisehart,  Roy  P.,  A.  B.  '10,  Ind.  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  S3g  N.  Howard  St.,  Union 
City,   Ind.,  since   ig2o. 

Withers,  John  W.,  B.  S.  'o,  B.  A.  'gi,  Pd. 
D.  'g6,  Nat.  Normal  Univ.;  M.  A.  '02, 
Ph.  D.  '04,  Yale  Univ.;  LL.  D.  '17,  Wash. 
Univ.;  LL.  D.  '18,  Univ.  of  Mo.;  Dean 
Sch.  of  Ed.,  N.  Y.  Univ.,  51  W.  4th  St., 
New   York,    N.    Y.,    since    1921. 

Witter,  F.  L.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Burlington, 
Wis. 

Wolford,  C.  H.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  118  Library 
PL,   Duquesne,    Pa. 

Womack,  J.  P.,  B.  A.  '03,  Univ.  of  Ark.; 
M.  A.  '18,  Geo.  Peabody  Col.;  Supt.  of 
Sch.,  610  W.  Matthews,  Jonesboro,  Ark., 
since   1917 

Wood,  James  M.,  Pres.  Stephens  Col.,  Co- 
lumbia,   Mo. 


Wood,  Oscar  S.,  A.  B.  '20,  Mich.  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  Aberdeen,  S.  D.,  since  1923. 

Wood,  W.  A.,  B.  S.  '15,  Kans.  State  Tchrs. 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Pratt,  Kans.,  since 
1919. 

Wood,  Will  C,  A.  M.  'ig,  Univ.  of  So. 
Calif.;  State  Supt.  of  Pub.  Instr.,  Mull 
Bldg.,    Sacramento,    Calif.,    since    1919. 

Woodruff,  Caroline  S.,  Prin.  State  Normal 
Tr.    Sch.,    Castleton,    Vt.,    since    ig2o. 

Woodward,  E.  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  506  E.  2nd 
St.,    Burkburnett,    Tex. 

Woodward,  H.  M.,  531  N.  2nd,  East,  Provo, 
Utah. 

Woodward,  H.  R.,  B.  A.  '16,  Dakota  Wes. 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  205  Connor  St.,  Hot 
Springs,    S.    D.,   since    ig22. 

Woolson,  Frank  S.,  Supvg.  Prin.,  118 
Eighth   Ave.,   Haddon    Heights,    N.   J. 

Woolston,  Robert  W.,  Dir.  111.  Sch.  for  the 
Blind,    Jacksonville,    111. 

Worthington,  J.  E.,  Prin.  High  Sch.,  301  S. 
Grand,    Waukesha,    Wis. 

Worthman,  M.  F.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Decatur, 
Ind. 

Wright,  Arthur  Davis,  A.  B.,  A.  M.  '04,  Col. 
of  Wm.  &  Mary;  Ed.  M.  '22,  Harvard; 
Hd.  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Dartmouth  Col.,  104 
Bartlett  Hall,   Hanover,   N.   H.,  since  1921. 

Wright,  Clark  G.,  Supt.  of  Dist.  108,  542  So. 
Linden  Ave.,  Highland  Park,  111.,  since 
igi4- 

Wright,  Isaac  Miles,  B.  S.  '04,  Alfred  Univ.; 
Pd.  M.  '14,  Pd.  D.  '16,  N.  Y.  Univ.;  Dir. 
Sch.  of  Ed.,  Muhlenberg  Col.,  240  No.  St. 
Cloud  St.,   Allentown,   Pa.,   since   1917. 

Wright,  Robt.  H.,  Pres.   E.   Car.  Tehrs.   Col., 
9  Greenville,    N.    C. 

Wright,  Wendell  W.,  Arsenal  Tech.  Schools, 
Indianapolis,    Ind.,   since    19 ig. 

Wyandt,  Jacob  W.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  20  S. 
Beech   St.,   Bryan,   Ohio. 

Wyland,  Mary  Jane,  Ph.  B.  '05,  Grinnell 
Col. ;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Harlan,  Iowa,  since 
1916. 

Wyman,  Elwood  T.,  B.  A.  '90,  Colby;  Supt. 
of  Sch.,  Warwick,  R.  I.,  since  1921;  P.  O. 
Apponaug,   R.   I. 

Yape,   D.   S.,   Supt.  of  Sch.,  Republic,   Mich. 

Yarbrough,  T.  W.,  A.  B.  '90,  Emory  Col.; 
Supt.  of  Pub.  Inst.,  Sarasota,  Fla.,  since 
1921. 

Yawberg,  A.  G.,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Old 
Court    House,    Cleveland,    Ohio. 

Yoakam,  G.  A.,  6361  Monitor  St.,  E.  E., 
Pittsburgh,   Pa. 

Yoder,  J.  J.,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  606  N.  nth  St., 
Marysville,    Kans. 

York,  Ada,  Co.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Court  House, 
San  Diego,   Calif. 

Yost,  E.  W.,  Co.  Sch.  Com.,  Co.  Bldg., 
Detroit,    Mich. 

Young,  Dale  S.,  B.  S.  '16,  Hedding  Col.; 
M.  S.  '17,  Univ.  of  111.;  504  W.  Drive 
W.    P.,    Indianapolis,    Ind.,    since    1919. 


The  Third  Yearbook 


421 


Young,  Leonard,  A.  B.  '98,  Univ.  of  Ind. ; 
Supt.  of  Sch.,  226  N.  First  Ave.,  East, 
Duluth,   Minn.,   since   1923. 

Young,  Nathan  B.,  A.  B.  '88,  A.  M.  '91, 
Oberlin  Col.;  Litt.  D.  '15,  Talladega  Col.; 
LL.  D.,  '23,  Selma  Univ.;  Pres.  Lincoln 
Univ.  of  Mo.,  Jefferson  City,  Mo.,  since 
1923. 

Young,  Oliver  O.,  Prin.  H.  S.,  Galesburg, 
111. 

Young,  Ross  N.,  A.  B.  '12,  Upper  Iowa 
Univ.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Stillwater,  Minn., 
since  1922. 

Young,  T.  T.,  A.  B.  '78,  Harvard  Univ.; 
Supt.  of  Dist.  Sch.  7,  117  Elm  St.,  Saco, 
Maine,   since   1909. 

Young,  Walter  S.,  B.  S.  'oi,  Dartmouth 
Col.;  Supt.  of  Sch.,  City  Hall,  Room  14, 
Worcester,    Mass.,    since    1923. 

Zeliff,    L.    A.,    Supt.   of   Sch.,    Stanberry,    Mo. 

Zener,  Virgil  C,  A.  B.  '10,  Univ.  of  Mich.; 
M.  A.  '18,  Albright  Col.;  Prof,  of  Ed., 
Albright  Col.,  19  Behney  Ave.,  Myers- 
town,   Pa.,  since   1916! 

Ziegler,  L.  E.,  A.  B.  '18,  Mo.  State  Univ.; 
Supt.    of   Sch.,    Maryville,    Mo.,   since    1920. 

Zimmerman,  J.  C,  Supt.  of  Sch.,  Castalio, 
Ohio. 


Zimmers,  P.  J.,  M.  A.  '17,  Univ.  of  Wis.; 
M.  A.  '24,  Columbia  Univ. ;  International 
House,  Riverside  Drive  at  124th  St.,  New 
York  City. 

Zmrhal,  J.  J.,  Dist.  Supt.  of  Sch.,  4301  W. 
Cullerton   St.,    Chicago,    111. 

University  of  Calif.   Library,   Berkeley,   Calif. 
Col.  of  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Md.,  College  Park,  Md. 

Kellogg  Library,  Kans.  State  Tchrs.  Col., 
Emporia,   Kans. 

State   Normal,   Willimantic,    Conn. 

Indianapolis  Pub.   Library,   Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Library  Dept.,  State  Normal  Col.,  Natchi- 
toches,  La. 

College  of  Education,  Univ.  of  Ark.,  Fayette- 
ville,   Ark. 

Lewiston  State  Normal  School,  Lewiston, 
Idaho. 

Washington  State  Normal  School,  Ellens- 
burg,   Wash. 

New  York  State  Library,  Univ.  of  the  State 
of   N.   Y.,  Albany,   N.   Y. 

Yale  University   Library,   New   Haven,   Conn. 

Library,  East  Central  State  Tchrs.  Col.,  Ada, 

Okla. 


Index 


SUBJECT  INDEX  TO  AUTHORS  OF  RESEARCH  STUDIES 


ARITHMETIC 

Adams,   H.   W 

Arps,  George  F 

Ballard,    P.    B 

Banting,    G.   O 

Beach,  Leander   

Beatty,   W.   W 

Breed,  F.  S 

Camerer,   Alice    

Charters,   W.   W 

Chase,   Sara  E 

Clapp,  Frank  L 

Coffman,  L.   D 

Connard,    H.    F 

Davies,   G.  R 

Gallaway,  Mrs.  T.  T 

Gaylord,    Harry   D 

Gray,  P.   L 

Hackler,  John   Monroe 

Hansen,    Einar    A 

Hanus,   Paul    H 

Heilman,  J.   D 

Holloway,    Harry    Vance 

Huff aker,   Carl   Leo 

Hunkins,   R.   V 

Jessup,  W.  A 

Johnson,    T.    J 

Knight,   F.  B 39, 

McClelland,  William  W 

Mead,   C.   D 96: 

Mitchell,    H.    Edwin 

Moore,  Ernest  C 

Myers,    G.   C 94 

Newcomb,   R.   S 

Noon,  Philo  G 

Osburn,    W.    J 99 

Sears,    Isabel     96 

Setzafandt,   A.   O.   H...., 

Shultis,   Frank   W 

Smith,    Nila    B 

Stevenson,  P.  R 

Stone,    John    C 

Taylor,    Joseph    S 

Uhl,    W.    L 

Williams,    L.    W 

Wilson,    Guy   M 42 

Winch,  W.  H 

Wise,  Carl  T 

Woody,  Clifford   50,   52 


SPELLING 

Page  ,    .  Page 

61  Andersen,   W.  N 118 

98  Ayres,   L.   P 112,  117 

96  Barthelmess,    Harriet   M 136 

92  Bauer,    Nicholas    135 

53  Byrne,   Mary   B.   C 150 

97  Capps,  A.  G 141 

93  Cesander,   P.   K 143 

57  Chancellor,  W.  E Ill 

•55  Clarke,  W.  F 122 

44  Cook,   W.   A 115 

104  Crowder,   Cora 124 

43  Curtis,   Ethel    127 

98  Dewey,  Godfrey   144 

91  Graham,  L.  J 145 

59  Henmon,  V.  A.   C 149 

46  Horn,  Ernest    123,   127,  145 

96  Houser,   J.    D 121 

38  Jones,   F.   W 135 

56  Kaeding,   F.    W 147 

46  Kansas   City   Schools 137 

103  Lester,    John    A 142 

102  McKee,   Grace  M 140 

101  Nicholson,  Anne    114 

93  O'Shea,  M.  V '. 115 

43  Phares,  Mary  L 146 

97  Pressey,   Luella  C 151 

100  Pryor,   H.   C 120 

97  Studley,    C.    K 114 

98  Thorndike,    E.   L...., 144 

48  Tidyman,  W.  F 138 

55  Ware,  Allison    114 

99  Warning,  Winifred  C 126 

92  Yocum,   A.   D 150 

50 

104  READING 

98  Abbott,  Allan 178 

100  Anderson,  C.  J 162,  197,  199,  200 

103  Ayer,  Fred  C 202 

60  Beatty,   W.   W 190 

93  Bobbitt,  Franklin 173 

94  Boggs,    Lucinda    188 

37  Brown,   Ethel    M 181 

99  Brown,    H.   A 165 

58  Buswell,  Guy  T 155,   157,   158,  159, 

47  163,   188,   189,  191,   193,  198 
97  Carswell,   Marion   190 

49  Cattell,   J.    McK 187,  188 

,     53  Cavins,    L.    V ' 177 

[422] 


Page 

Courtis,  S.  A 163,   194 

Currier,   L.   B 191 

Dearborn,  W.  A 187 

Dickson,    Virgil    E 194,   197 

Ducker,   Mabel  L 191,   192 

Duguid,    O.    C 191 

Dunn,    Fannie    W 165,   166,   172 

Fernald,    Grace    M 190,200 

Ferris,   E 201 

Garnett,  Wilma  Leslie 176 

Gates,   Arthur   1 162,189,193, 

194,  195,  200 

Geiger,    Ruth    162,197,   199 

Gilliland,   A.   R 187 

Gray,  C.  T 158,  159,  187,  189, 

197,  199,  200 

Gray,  WilliamS...  153,  154,  155,  156,157, 

159,  160,  162,  163,  164,  173,  187,  188, 

195,  196,  197,  198,  199,  200,  201,  203 

Greene,    H.    A ..'.'. 190 

Gregory,  A.  C 182 

Hawley,  W.  E 163 

Heller,  Reginia  R 190 

Herriott,    M.    E 168 

Hollingworth,    L.    S 200 

Holmes,  H.  E 201 

Hoover,    J.    H 190 

Horn,  Ernest    188,  189 

Hosic,   James   F 177,   189 

Housh,    E.    T 181 

Huey,    E.    B 159,187,  188 

Jaycox,    E 191,   192 

Jordan,    Arthur    M....  165,166,171,   176 

Judd,  Charles  H..  .155,  156,  159,  161,  163, 

164,  187,  188,  189,  191,  193,  195,  196 

Keener,   E.    E 194,   197 

Keller,    Helen    B 190,  200 

Kibbe,    Delia 200 

Kirk,  H.  H 202 

Leland,    Bernice    162 

Lively,    Bertha    A 185 

Lloyd,   S.   M 200 

Lucas,   Laura ■  ■  •    200 

Lyman,  Rollo  L 177 

McGaughey,   J.  R 204 

McGrath,  Jane    156 

McLaughlin,    Katherine    187 

McLeod,  L.  S 168 

Mackintosh,  Helen  K 176 

Merton,   Elda   L..  .  162,  190,  197,  199,  200 

Midler,  L.  W 200 

O'Brien,  J.  A 158,  159,  161 

Osburn,  W.  J 191,  193,  197,  201 

Packer,  J.   L 180 

Paisons,  R.  B 154 

Pendleton,   S.   C 154 

Pressey,  L.   C 183 


Page 

Pressey,    S.    L 185 

Reinoehl,    Charles   M 153,  203 

Rugg,   Harold    0 200 

Schmidt,    W.    A 157,  158 

Schmitt,  Clara   187 

Selke,    Erich    179 

Selka,    G.    A 179 

Starch,    Daniel    167 

Stone,  R.  E 168 

Theisen,  W.  W..  .  162,  164,  189,  194,  195, 

196,  197, 198,  201 
Thorndike,  E.  L..  .  186,  187,  193,  197,  201 

Trabue,    M.   R 178 

Uhl,    W.    L 162,165,166,169, 

173,  195,  197,    199 

Van  Alstyne,   D 189 

Vinal,    William    G 167 

Vogel,  M. 191,   192 

Waldman,   Bessie    197,   199 

Washburne,    Carlton    W 191,  192 

Wooley,    Helen   T 201 

Zirbes,   Laura 165,  190,  195,  196,  197, 

198,  199,200,  201 

HANDWRITING 

Ely,   Myrtle 214 

Freeman,  Frank  N 206 

Houston,  Harry 212 

Koos,    Leonard    V. * 209 

Savage,   J.    A 212 

Smith,   Florence   M 214 

Walker,   H.   C 213,  214 


SOCIAL    STUDIES 

Alderman,  Grover  H 265 

Bagley,  William  C 217,  235,  243,  255 

Bassett,    B.    B 228 

Bobbitt,  Franklin 273 

Branom,   M.  E 263 

Breeze,    Retha    E 227 

Charters,   W.   W 239 

Cocking,    Walter    Dewey 225 

Davis,  Maude   Bennett 231 

Goss,  Ralph  Ross 266 

Harap,  Henry    269 

Hockett,    John    233 

Horn,  Ernest   240,  275 

Marston,    L.   R 243 

McKown,   H.   C 243 

Peters,   Charles  C 253 

Reavis,  W.  C 263 

Rugg,  Earle    217,  256 

Rugg,  Harold  O..  .217,  221,  226,  233,  255 

Sharon,  J.  A 233 

Swisher,  J.  A 246 

Thomas,  Joel  Bert 250 

[423] 


Page 

Washburne,  Carleton  W 251 

Whitbeck,  R.  H 261 

Wooters,  James  E 262 

LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR 

Bobbitt,    Franklin    289 

Johnson,  Roy  Ivan 294 

Pendleton,   Charles   S 286 

Searson,   J.   W 285 

Sunne,   Dagny 294 

SCIENCE 

Ayer,  Fred   C. 300 

Caldwell,  Otis  W 301 

Downing,    Elliot   R 299 

Finley,   Charles   W 301 

Mau,    Laura    E 298 

Meier,  W.   H 302 

Patterson,  Alice  J 300 

Trafton,    Gilbert    H :  .  .  299 

HEALTH  AND  PHYSICAL 
EDUCATION 

Atkinson,   Ruth   V 313 

Brace,    David    K .  313 

Davis,  Walter  W 305 

Hunt,  Jean  Lee 304 

Johnson,  Buford  J 304 

Judelsohn,   Samuel  J 313 

Kalamazoo    Public    Schools 306 

Lincoln,    Edith    M 304 

McCloy,    C.    H 313 

Payne,  E.  George 308,  310 

Post,  L.  M 312 

Reesor,    Mary 304 

Reilly,   Frederick  J 312 

Strang,    Ruth 310 

Williams,  Jesse  F 313 

Wood,  Thomas  D 304 

HOME  ECONOMICS 

Fulton,   Lucy 324 

Harap,    Henry 324 

Miller,    Ethelwyn 320 

Robertson,  Annie  L 325 

Roman,    Mata 324 

Rose,  Mary  Swartz 327 

Trilling,    Mabel    Barbara 320,  321 

Williams,    Florence 322 

Winchell,   Florence   E 323 

INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Edgerton,    Alonson    H 330 

Kent,  Ernest  B 329 

Harap,    Henry 334 

N.    E.    A.    Department    of    Superin- 
tendence       332 


ART  EDUCATION 

Page 

Ayer,  Fred  C 3  52 

Bach,    R.    F 3  52 

Bailey,    Henry    Turner 352 

Barnes,    Earl 352 

Beard,   Florence 352 

Bennett,    C.    A 352 

Boas,    Belle 352 

Bonser,    Frederick    G 3  52,  3  53 

Brown,   Elmer   Ellsworth 3  52 

Bureau  of  Education 352 

Carey,    Gertrude    L 341,  353 

Clark,  A.  B 352 

Cooke,  Ebenezer 352 

De  Garmo,   Charles 352 

Dewey,    John 3  52 

Dobbs,  Ella  Victoria 352 

Dow,   Arthur   W 3  52 

Edgerton,  A.  H 352 

Farnum,    Royal    Bailey 352 

Gibson,    Katherine 347,  3  52 

Haney,  James   Parton 3  52 

Howells,   W.   D 3  53 

Kline,   Linus   W 341,  353 

Lukens,    H.    T 340,  353 

Major,   David   R 353 

Manuel,    Herschel    Thurman..    345,  353 

Mathias,    Margaret    E 353 

McCarty,    Stella    A 342,353 

Miller,  Elizabeth  E 341,  353 

Mossman,   L.    C " 3  52 

Niles,  Helen  R 353 

O'Shea,  M.  V 353 

Riker,  Olive  M 349,  353 

Russell,  James  E 353 

Sargent,     Walter 341,  353 

Stewart,   Lillian    V 350,  353 

Thorndike,  Edward  L 341,  353 

Welling,   Jane   Betsy 353 

Whitford,  W.  J 353 

Williams,   Florence 344,  353 

Winslow,  Leon  L 3  52,  3  53 

MUSIC 

Bobbitt,    Franklin 364 

DeGraff,  Mrs.  L.  H 360 

Glass,  J.  M 363 

Klauer,    Naomi 359 

Kwalwasser,  J 360 

Pannenborg 358 

Revesz    357,  358 

Schoen,    Max 357 

Schiissler    358 

Seashore,  C.  E , 355 

Trabue,    M.   R 362 

Windhorst,  Estelle 364 


[424] 


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